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Wednesday, October 8, 2014

Mars here we come

Space colonization

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A colony on the Moon

Interior of a Bernal sphere
Space colonization (also called space settlement, or extraterrestrial colonization) is permanent human habitation off planet Earth.
Many arguments have been made for space colonization.[1] The two most common are survival of human civilization and the biosphere in case of a planetary-scale disaster (natural or man-made), and the vast resources in space for expansion of human society.[citation needed]
No space colonies have been built so far. As of right now, the building of a space colony would present a set of huge challenges, both technological and economic. Space settlements would have to provide for nearly all (or all) the material needs of hundreds or thousands of humans, in an environment out in space that is very hostile to human life.[citation needed] They would involve technologies, such as controlled ecological life support systems, that have yet to be developed in any meaningful way. They would also have to deal with the as yet unknown issue of how humans would behave and thrive in such places long-term. Because of the huge cost of sending anything from the surface of the Earth into orbit (roughly $20,000 USD per kilogram) a space colony would be a massively expensive project.
There are no timetables for building one by any large-scale organization (either government or private). However, there have been many proposals, speculations, and designs for space settlements that have been made, and there are a considerable number of space colonization advocates and groups. And several famous scientists, such as Freeman Dyson, have come out in favor of space settlement.[2]
Also on the technological front, there is ongoing progress in making access to space cheaper, and in creating automated manufacturing and construction techniques.[citation needed] This could in the future lead to widespread space tourism, which could be a stepping stone to space colonization.[citation needed]

Reasons

Survival of human civilization

Main article: Space and survival
The primary argument that calls for space colonization as a first-order priority is as insurance of the survival of human civilization, by developing alternative locations off Earth where humankind could continue in the event of natural and man-made disasters.
Theoretical physicist and cosmologist Stephen Hawking has argued for space colonization as a means of saving humanity, in 2001 and 2006. In 2001 he predicted that the human race would become extinct within the next thousand years, unless colonies could be established in space.[3] The more recent one in 2006 stated that mankind faces two options: Either we colonize space within the next two hundred years and build residential units on other planets or we will face the prospect of long-term extinction.[4]
Louis J. Halle, formerly of the United States Department of State, wrote in Foreign Affairs (Summer 1980) that the colonization of space will protect humanity in the event of global nuclear warfare.[5] The physicist Paul Davies also supports the view that if a planetary catastrophe threatens the survival of the human species on Earth, a self-sufficient colony could "reverse-colonize" Earth and restore human civilization. The author and journalist William E. Burrows and the biochemist Robert Shapiro proposed a private project, the Alliance to Rescue Civilization, with the goal of establishing an off-Earth backup of human civilization.[6]
J. Richard Gott has estimated, based on his Copernican principle, that the human race could survive for another 7.8 million years, but it isn't likely to ever colonize other planets. However, he expressed a hope to be proven wrong, because "colonizing other worlds is our best chance to hedge our bets and improve the survival prospects of our species".[7]

Survival of the biosphere

Many of the same existential risks to humankind would destroy parts or all of Earth's biosphere as well. An example would be a very large asteroid impact. And although many have speculated about life and intelligence existing in other parts of space, Earth is the only place in the universe currently known to harbor either of these (see: Fermi Paradox, and Rare Earth Hypothesis).
But even if these threats are averted, eventually Earth is to become uninhabitable. This is due to the Sun's increasing luminosity over its lifetime: the Sun is estimated to have been 70-75 percent as bright as it is now when it first formed 4.5 billion years ago, and in a billion years it will be 10 percent brighter. It has been suggested that approximately 800 million years from now, that Earth will cease to be able to sustain multi-cellular life.[8] Later on in several billion years, the brightening Sun will cause a runaway greenhouse effect, extinguishing all life on Earth.
Further information: Future of the Earth

Vast resources in space

Resources in space, both in materials and energy, are enormous. The Solar System alone has, according to different estimates, enough material and energy to support numbers of humans, anywhere from several thousand to over a billion times that of the current Earth-based human population.[9][10][11] Outside the Solar System in the Milky Way are anywhere up to several hundred billion other stellar systems. Outside the Milky Way are up to several hundred billion other galaxies in the observable universe.

Expansion with fewer negative consequences

Expansion of humans and technological progress has usually resulted in some form of environmental devastation, and destruction of ecosystems and their accompanying wildlife.The Earth right now has entered another mass extinction event, similar to the one 65 million years ago that wiped out the dinosaurs. The reason for this new mass extinction: us (humans).[12][13]
Aside from Earth's, there are no currently known biospheres to destroy in space.
Expansion has also often come at the expense of displacing many indigenous peoples, the resulting treatment of these peoples ranging anywhere from encroachment to full-blown genocide. Since space has no indigenous peoples this need not be a consequence, as some space settlement advocates have pointed out.[14][15]

Could help Earth

Another argument for space colonization is to mitigate the negative effects of overpopulation. If the resources of space were opened to use and viable life-supporting habitats were built, Earth would no longer define the limitations of growth. Although Earth's resources do not grow, humans more and more learn to exploit them effectively, and sometimes even almost completely. As extraterrestrial resources become available, demand on terrestrial ones would decline.[16]

Other arguments

Additional goals cite the innate human drive to explore and discover, a quality recognized at the core of progress and thriving civilizations.[17][18]
Nick Bostrom has argued that from a utilitarian perspective, space colonization should be a chief goal as it would enable a very large population to live for a very long period of time (possibly billions of years) which would produce an enormous amount of utility (or happiness). He claims that it is more important to reduce existential risks to increase the probability of eventual colonization than to accelerate technological development so that space colonization could happen sooner.[19] In his paper, he assumes that the created lives will have positive ethical value despite the problem of suffering, or that future technology could solve it.
In a 2001 interview with Freeman Dyson, J. Richard Gott and Sid Goldstein, they were asked for reasons why some humans should live in space.[2] Their answers were:

Goals

There will be a very high initial investment cost for space colonies and any other permanent space infrastructure due to the high cost of getting into space. However, proponents argue that the long-term vision of developing space infrastructure will provide long-term benefits far in excess of the initial start-up costs. Therefore, such a development program should be viewed more as a long-term investment and not like current social spending programs that incur spending commitments but provide little or no return on that investment.
Because current space launch costs are so high ($4,000 to $40,000 per kilogram), any serious plans for space colonization must include developing low-cost access to space followed by developing in-situ resource utilization. Therefore, the initial investments must be made in the development of low-cost access to space followed by an initial capacity to provide these necessities: materials, energy, propellant, communication, life support, radiation protection, self-replication, and population.
Although some items of the infrastructure requirements above can already be easily produced on Earth and would therefore not be very valuable as trade items (oxygen, water, base metal ores, silicates, etc.), other high value items are more abundant, more easily produced, of higher quality, or can only be produced in space. These would provide (over the long-term) a very high return on the initial investment in space infrastructure.[20]
Some of these high-value trade goods include precious metals,[21][22] gem stones,[23] power,[24] solar cells,[25] ball bearings,[25] semi-conductors,[25] and pharmaceuticals.[25]
Space colonization is seen as a long-term goal of some national space programs. Since the advent of the 21st-century commercialization of space, which opened cooperation between NASA and the private sector, several private companies have announced plans toward the colonization of Mars. Among entrepreneurs leading the call for space colonization are Elon Musk, Dennis Tito and Bas Lansdorp.[26][27][28]
Potential sites for space colonies include the Moon, Mars, asteroids and free-floating space habitats. Ample quantities of all the necessary materials, such as solar energy and water, are available from or on the Moon, Mars, near-Earth asteroids or other planetary bodies.
In 2005, then NASA Administrator Michael Griffin identified space colonization as the ultimate goal of current spaceflight programs, saying:
The main impediments to commercial exploitation of these resources are the very high cost of initial investment,[30] the very long period required for the expected return on those investments (The Eros Project plans a 50 year development.[31]), and the fact that the thing has never been done before — the high-risk nature of the investment.
Major governments and well-funded corporations have announced plans for new categories of activities: space tourism and hotels, prototype space-based solar-power satellites, heavy-lift boosters and asteroid mining—that create needs and capabilities for humans to be in space.[32][33][34]
In particular, progresses with the annihilation of matter could render spaceflight and colonization more efficient and affordable, to a revolutionary degree,[35] and nuclear engineering.[36]

Space colony types

There are two main types of space colonies:
  • Surface-based examples that would exist on or below the surfaces of planets, moons, etc.
  • Space habitats — free-floating stations that would orbit a planet, moon, etc. or in an independent orbit around the sun.
There is considerable debate among space settlement advocates as to which type (and associated locations) represents the better option for expanding humanity into space.

Space habitats

Main article: Space habitat

Interior view of an O'Neill cylinder
Locations in space would necessitate a space habitat, also called space colony and orbital colony, or a space station which would be intended as a permanent settlement rather than as a simple waystation or other specialized facility. They would be literal "cities" in space, where people would live and work and raise families. Many designs have been proposed with varying degrees of realism by both science fiction authors and scientists. Such a space habitat could be isolated from the rest of humanity but near enough to Earth for help. This would test if thousands of humans can survive on their own before sending them beyond the reach of help.

O'Neill cylinders space colony (Island Three design from the 1970s)

Method

Building colonies in space would require access to water, food, space, people, construction materials, energy, transportation, communications, life support, simulated gravity, radiation protection and capital investment. It is likely the colonies would be located by proximity to the necessary physical resources. The practice of space architecture seeks to transform spaceflight from a heroic test of human endurance to a normality within the bounds of comfortable experience. As is true of other frontier opening endeavors, the capital investment necessary for space colonization would probably come from the state,[37] an argument made by John Hickman[38] and Neil deGrasse Tyson.[39]

Materials

Colonies on the Moon, Mars, or asteroids could extract local materials. The Moon is deficient in volatiles such as argon, helium and compounds of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. The LCROSS impacter was targeted at the Cabeus crater which was chosen as having a high concentration of water for the Moon. A plume of material erupted in which some water was detected. Anthony Colaprete estimated that the Cabeus crater contains material with 1% water or possibly more.[40] Water ice should also be in other permanently shadowed craters near the lunar poles. Although helium is present only in low concentrations on the Moon, where it is deposited into regolith by the solar wind, an estimated million tons of He-3 exists over all.[41] It also has industrially significant oxygen, silicon, and metals such as iron, aluminum, and titanium.
Launching materials from Earth is expensive, so bulk materials for colonies could come from the Moon, a near-Earth object, Phobos, or Deimos. The benefits of using such sources include: a lower gravitational force, there is no atmospheric drag on cargo vessels, and there is no biosphere to damage. Many NEOs contain substantial amounts of metals. Underneath a drier outer crust (much like oil shale), some other NEOs are inactive comets which include billions of tons of water ice and kerogen hydrocarbons, as well as some nitrogen compounds.[42]
Farther out, Jupiter's Trojan asteroids are thought to be high in water ice and other volatiles.[43]
Recycling of some raw materials would almost certainly be necessary.
Further information: Asteroid mining

Energy

Solar energy in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in free space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. Light intensity obeys an inverse-square law. So the solar energy available at distance d from the Sun is E = 1367/d2 W/m2, where d is measured in astronomical units (AU) and 1367 watts/m2 is the energy available at the distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun, 1 AU.[44]
In the weightlessness and vacuum of space, high temperatures for industrial processes can easily be achieved in solar ovens with huge parabolic reflectors made of metallic foil with very lightweight support structures. Flat mirrors to reflect sunlight around radiation shields into living areas (to avoid line-of-sight access for cosmic rays, or to make the Sun's image appear to move across their "sky") or onto crops are even lighter and easier to build.
Large solar power photovoltaic cell arrays or thermal power plants would be needed to meet the electrical power needs of the settlers' use. In developed nations on Earth, electrical consumption can average 1 kilowatt/person (or roughly 10 megawatt-hours per person per year.)[45] These power plants could be at a short distance from the main structures if wires are used to transmit the power, or much farther away with wireless power transmission.
A major export of the initial space settlement designs was anticipated to be large solar power satellites that would use wireless power transmission (phase-locked microwave beams or lasers emitting wavelengths that special solar cells convert with high efficiency) to send power to locations on Earth, or to colonies on the Moon or other locations in space. For locations on Earth, this method of getting power is extremely benign, with zero emissions and far less ground area required per watt than for conventional solar panels. Once these satellites are primarily built from lunar or asteroid-derived materials, the price of SPS electricity could be lower than energy from fossil fuel or nuclear energy; replacing these would have significant benefits such as elimination of greenhouse gases and nuclear waste from electricity generation.
However, the value of SPS power delivered wirelessly to other locations in Space will typically be far higher than to locations on Earth. Otherwise, the means of generating the power would need to be included with these projects and pay the heavy penalty of Earth launch costs. Therefore, other than proposed demonstration projects for power delivered to Earth,[33] the first priority for SPS electricity is likely to be locations in space, such as communications satellites, fuel depots or "orbital tugboat" boosters transferring cargo and passengers between Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) and other orbits such as Geosynchronous orbit (GEO), lunar orbit or Highly-Eccentric Earth Orbit (HEEO).[46]:132
The Moon has nights of two Earth weeks in duration. Mars has nights, relatively high gravity, and an atmosphere with dust storms to cover and degrade solar panels. Also, its greater distance from the Sun (1.5 astronomical units, AU) translates into E/(1.52 = 2.25) only ½-⅔ the solar energy of Earth orbit. For these reasons, nuclear power is sometimes proposed for colonies in these locations.[47] Another alternative would be transmitting energy wirelessly to the lunar or Martian colonies from solar power satellites (SPSs) as described above—note again that the difficulties of generating power in these locations make the relative advantages of SPSs much greater there than for power beamed to locations on Earth.
For both solar thermal and nuclear power generation in airless environments, such as the Moon and space, and to a lesser extent the very thin Martian atmosphere, one of the main difficulties is dispersing the inevitable heat generated. This requires fairly large radiator areas.

Transportation


Delta-v's in km/s for various orbital maneuvers[48][49] using conventional rockets. Red arrows show where optional aerobraking can be performed in that particular direction, black numbers give delta-v in km/s that apply in either direction.
For velocity change requirements to get to different places in the solar system, see delta-v budget.
For cargo see Interplanetary Transport Network optimized for minimum energy.
For people see Interplanetary spaceflight optimized for minimum time.

Space access

Further information: Non-rocket spacelaunch
Transportation to orbit is often the limiting factor in space endeavours. To settle space, much cheaper launch vehicles are required, as well as a way to avoid serious damage to the atmosphere from the thousands, perhaps millions, of launches required.[citation needed] One possibility is the air-breathing hypersonic spaceplane under development by NASA and other organizations, both public and private. Other proposed projects include skyhooks, space elevators, mass drivers, launch loops, and StarTrams.

Cislunar and Solar-System travel

Transportation of large quantities of materials from the Moon, Phobos, Deimos, and near-Earth asteroids to orbital settlement construction sites is likely to be necessary.
Transportation using off-Earth resources for propellant in conventional rockets would be expected to massively reduce in-space transportation costs compared to the present day. Propellant launched from the Earth is likely to be prohibitively expensive for space colonization, even with improved space access costs.
Other technologies such as tether propulsion, VASIMR, ion drives, solar thermal rockets, solar sails, magnetic sails, and nuclear thermal propulsion can all potentially help solve the problems of high transport cost once in space.
For lunar materials, one well-studied possibility is to build mass drivers to launch bulk materials to waiting settlements. Alternatively, lunar space elevators might be employed.

Local transport

Lunar rovers and Mars rovers are common features of proposed colonies for those bodies. Space suits would likely be needed for excursions, maintenance, and safety.

Communication

Compared to the other requirements, communication is easy for orbit and the Moon. A great proportion of current terrestrial communications already passes through satellites. Yet, as colonies further from the Earth are considered, communication becomes more of a burden. Transmissions to and from Mars suffer from significant delays due to the speed of light and the greatly varying distance between conjunction and opposition—the lag will range between 7 and 44 minutes—making real-time communication impractical. Other means of communication that do not require live interaction such as e-mail and voice mail systems should pose no problem.

Life support

In space settlements, a life support system must recycle or import all the nutrients without "crashing." The closest terrestrial analogue to space life support is possibly that of a nuclear submarine. Nuclear submarines use mechanical life support systems to support humans for months without surfacing, and this same basic technology could presumably be employed for space use. However, nuclear submarines run "open loop"—extracting oxygen from seawater, and typically dumping carbon dioxide overboard, although they recycle existing oxygen. Recycling of the carbon dioxide has been approached in the literature using the Sabatier process or the Bosch reaction.
Although a fully mechanistic life support system is conceivable, a closed ecological system is generally proposed for life support. The Biosphere 2 project in Arizona has shown that a complex, small, enclosed, man-made biosphere can support eight people for at least a year, although there were many problems. A year or so into the two-year mission oxygen had to be replenished, which strongly suggests that they achieved atmospheric closure.
The relationship between organisms, their habitat and the non-Earth environment can be:
A combination of the above technologies is also possible.
Further information: Effect of spaceflight on the human body, Space medicine and Space food

Radiation protection

Cosmic rays and solar flares create a lethal radiation environment in space. In Earth orbit, the Van Allen belts make living above the Earth's atmosphere difficult. To protect life, settlements must be surrounded by sufficient mass to absorb most incoming radiation, unless magnetic or plasma radiation shields were developed.[50]
Passive mass shielding of four metric tons per square meter of surface area will reduce radiation dosage to several mSv or less annually, well below the rate of some populated high natural background areas on Earth.[51] This can be leftover material (slag) from processing lunar soil and asteroids into oxygen, metals, and other useful materials. However, it represents a significant obstacle to maneuvering vessels with such massive bulk (mobile spacecraft being particularly likely to use less massive active shielding).[50] Inertia would necessitate powerful thrusters to start or stop rotation, or electric motors to spin two massive portions of a vessel in opposite senses. Shielding material can be stationary around a rotating interior.
See also: Health threat from cosmic rays

Self-replication

Space manufacturing could enable self-replication. Some think it the ultimate goal because it allows a much more rapid increase in colonies, while eliminating costs to and dependence on Earth. It could be argued that the establishment of such a colony would be Earth's first act of self-replication (see Gaia spore). Intermediate goals include colonies that expect only information from Earth (science, engineering, entertainment) and colonies that just require periodic supply of light weight objects, such as integrated circuits, medicines, genetic material and tools.
See also: von Neumann probe, clanking replicator, molecular nanotechnology

Psychological adjustment

The monotony and loneliness that comes from a prolonged space mission can leave astronauts susceptible to cabin fever or having a psychotic break. Moreover, lack of sleep, fatigue, and work overload can affect an astronaut's ability to perform well in an environment such as space where every action is critical.[52]

Population size

In 2002, the anthropologist John H. Moore estimated that a population of 150–180 would allow normal reproduction for 60 to 80 generations — equivalent to 2000 years.
A much smaller initial population of as little as two women should be viable as long as human embryos are available from Earth. Use of a sperm bank from Earth also allows a smaller starting base with negligible inbreeding.
Researchers in conservation biology have tended to adopt the "50/500" rule of thumb initially advanced by Franklin and Soule. This rule says a short-term effective population size (Ne) of 50 is needed to prevent an unacceptable rate of inbreeding, whereas a long‐term Ne of 500 is required to maintain overall genetic variability. The Ne = 50 prescription corresponds to an inbreeding rate of 1% per generation, approximately half the maximum rate tolerated by domestic animal breeders. The Ne = 500 value attempts to balance the rate of gain in genetic variation due to mutation with the rate of loss due to genetic drift.

Location


Artist Les Bossinas' 1989 concept of Mars mission
Location is a frequent point of contention between space colonization advocates. The location of colonization can be on a physical body or free-flying:

Near-Earth space

Earth orbit

Compared to other locations, Earth orbit has substantial advantages and one major, but solvable, problem. Orbits close to Earth can be reached in hours, whereas the Moon is days away and trips to Mars take months. There is ample continuous solar power in high Earth orbits. The level of (pseudo-) gravity can be controlled at any desired level by rotating an orbital colony.
The main disadvantage of orbital colonies is lack of materials. These may be expensively imported from the Earth, or more cheaply from extraterrestrial sources, such as the Moon (which has ample metals, silicon, and oxygen), near-Earth asteroids, comets, or elsewhere. As of 2014, the International Space Station provides a temporary, yet still non-autonomous, human presence in low Earth orbit.

The Moon

Main article: Colonization of the Moon
Due to its proximity and familiarity, Earth's Moon is discussed as a target for colonization. It has the benefits of proximity to Earth and lower escape velocity, allowing for easier exchange of goods and services. A drawback of the Moon is its low abundance of volatiles necessary for life such as hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon. Water-ice deposits that exist in some polar craters could serve as a source for these elements. An alternative solution is to bring hydrogen from near-Earth asteroids and combine it with oxygen extracted from lunar rock.
The Moon's low surface gravity is also a concern, as it is unknown whether 1/6g is enough to maintain human health for long periods.

Lagrange points

Main article: Lagrange Point Colonization

A contour plot of the gravitational potential of the Sun and Earth, showing the five Earth–Sun Lagrange points
Another near-Earth possibility are the five Earth-Moon Lagrange points. Although they would generally also take a few days to reach with current technology, many of these points would have near-continuous solar power capability since their distance from Earth would result in only brief and infrequent eclipses of light from the Sun. However, the fact that Earth-Moon Lagrange points L4 and L5 tend to collect dust and debris, while L1-L3 require active station-keeping measures to maintain a stable position, make them somewhat less suitable places for habitation than was originally believed. Additionally, the orbit of L2 - L5 takes them out of the protection of the Earth's magnetosphere for approximately two-thirds of the time, exposing them to the health threat from cosmic rays.
The five Earth–Sun Lagrange points would totally eliminate eclipses, but only L1 and L2 would be reachable in a few days' time. The other three Earth-Sun points would require months to reach.

Near-Earth asteroids

Main article: Near-Earth asteroid
Many small asteroids in orbit around the Sun have the advantage that they pass closer than Earth's moon several times per decade. In between these close approaches to home, the asteroid may travel out to a furthest distance of some 350,000,000 kilometers from the Sun (its aphelion) and 500,000,000 kilometers from Earth.

The inner planets

Mars

Main article: Colonization of Mars
The surface of Mars is about the same size as the dry land surface of Earth. The ice in Mars' south polar cap, if spread over the planet, would be a layer 12 meters (39 feet) thick[53] and there is carbon (locked as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere).
Mars may have gone through similar geological and hydrological processes as Earth and therefore might contain valuable mineral ores. Equipment is available to extract in situ resources (e.g., water, air) from the Martian ground and atmosphere. There is interest in colonizing Mars in part because life could have existed on Mars at some point in its history, and may even still exist in some parts of the planet.
However, its atmosphere is very thin (averaging 800 Pa or about 0.8% of Earth sea-level atmospheric pressure); so the pressure vessels necessary to support life are very similar to deep-space structures. The climate of Mars is colder than Earth's. The dust storms block out most of the sun's light for a month or more at a time. Its gravity is only around a third that of Earth's; it is unknown whether this is sufficient to support human beings for extended periods (all long-term human experience to date has been at around Earth gravity, or one g).
The atmosphere is thin enough, when coupled with Mars' lack of magnetic field, that radiation is more intense on the surface, and protection from solar storms would require radiation shielding.

An artist's conception of a terraformed Mars (2009)
Terraforming Mars would make life outside pressure vessels on the surface possible. There is some discussion of it actually being done.
See also: Exploration of Mars, Martian terraforming
Phobos and Deimos
The moons of Mars may be a target for space colonization. Low delta-v is needed to reach the Earth from Phobos and Deimos, allowing delivery of material to cislunar space, as well as transport around the Martian system. The moons themselves may be suitable for habitation, with methods similar to those for asteroids.

Venus

Main article: Colonization of Venus

Artist's impression of a terraformed Venus
While the surface of Venus is far too hot and features atmospheric pressure at least 90 times that at sea level on Earth, its massive atmosphere offers a possible alternate location for colonization. At an altitude of approximately 50 km, the pressure is reduced to a few atmospheres, and the temperature would be between 40–100 °C, depending on the altitude. This part of the atmosphere is probably within dense clouds which contain some sulfuric acid. Even these may have a certain benefit to colonization, as they present a possible source for the extraction of water.
See also: Terraforming of Venus

Mercury

Main article: Colonization of Mercury
There is a suggestion that Mercury could be colonized using the same technology, approach and equipment that is used in colonizing the Moon. Such colonies would almost certainly be restricted to the polar regions due to the extreme daytime temperatures elsewhere on the planet.
Observations of Mercury's polar regions by radar from Earth and the on-going observations of the Messenger Probe have been consistent with water ice and/or other frozen volatiles being present in permanently shadowed areas of craters in Mercury's polar regions.[54] Measurements of Mercury's exosphere, which is practically a vacuum, revealed more ions derived from water than scientists had expected.[55] All of these observations are consistent with water ice and/or other volatiles being available to hypothetical future colonists of Mercury.

The asteroid belt

Main article: Colonization of the asteroids
See also: Asteroids § Exploration
Colonization of asteroids would require space habitats. The asteroid belt has significant overall material available, the largest object being Ceres, although it is thinly distributed as it covers a vast region of space. Unmanned supply craft should be practical with little technological advance, even crossing 1/2 billion kilometers of cold vacuum. The colonists would have a strong interest in assuring that their asteroid did not hit Earth or any other body of significant mass, but would have extreme difficulty in moving an asteroid of any size. The orbits of the Earth and most asteroids are very distant from each other in terms of delta-v and the asteroidal bodies have enormous momentum. Rockets or mass drivers can perhaps be installed on asteroids to direct their path into a safe course.

Ceres

Main article: Colonization of Ceres
Ceres is a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt, comprising about one third the mass of the whole belt and being the sixth largest body in the inner Solar System by mass and volume. Ceres has a surface area somewhat larger than Argentina. Being the largest body in the asteroid belt, Ceres could become the main base and transport hub for future asteroid mining infrastructure, allowing mineral resources to be transported further to Mars, the Moon and Earth. See further: Main-Belt Asteroids. It may be possible to paraterraform Ceres, making life easier for the colonists. Given its low gravity and fast rotation, a space elevator would also be practical.

Moons of outer planets

Jovian moons — Europa, Callisto and Ganymede

Main articles: Colonization of Europa and Colonization of the outer Solar System
The Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa, one of Jupiter's moons. Scientists were to inhabit igloos and drill down into the Europan ice crust, exploring any sub-surface ocean. This plan discusses possible use of "air pockets" for human inhabitation. Europa is considered one of the more habitable bodies in the Solar System and so merits investigation as a possible abode for life.
Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System. It may be attractive as Ganymede is the only moon with a magnetosphere and so is less irradiated at the surface. The presence of magnetosphere, likely indicates a convecting molten core within Ganymede, which may in turn indicate a rich geologic history for the moon.
NASA performed a study called HOPE (Revolutionary Concepts for Human Outer Planet Exploration) regarding the future exploration of the Solar System.[56] The target chosen was Callisto. It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System.
The three out of four largest moons of Jupiter (Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) have an abundance of volatiles making future colonization possible.

Moons of Saturn — Titan, Enceladus, and others

Main article: Colonization of Titan
Titan is suggested as a target for colonization,[57] because it is the only moon in the Solar System to have a dense atmosphere and is rich in carbon-bearing compounds.[58] Robert Zubrin identified Titan as possessing an abundance of all the elements necessary to support life, making Titan perhaps the most advantageous locale in the outer Solar System for colonization, and saying "In certain ways, Titan is the most hospitable extraterrestrial world within our solar system for human colonization".
Enceladus is a small, icy moon orbiting close to Saturn, notable for its extremely bright surface and the geyser-like plumes of ice and water vapor that erupt from its southern polar region. If Enceladus has liquid water, it joins Mars and Jupiter's moon Europa as one of the prime places in the Solar System to look for extraterrestrial life and possible future settlements.
Other large satellites: Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, and Mimas, all have large quantities of volatiles, which can be used to support settlement.

Moons of Uranus and Neptune

The five large moons of Uranus (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon) and Triton—Neptune's largest moon—, although very cold, have large amounts of frozen water and other volatiles and could potentially be settled, only they would require a lot of nuclear power to sustain the habitats. Triton's thin atmosphere also contains some nitrogen and even some frozen nitrogen on the surface (the surface temperature is 38 K or about -391°Fahrenheit). Pluto is estimated to have a very similar structure to Triton.

The Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud

Pluto is estimated to have a very similar structure to Triton.
The Kuiper Belt is estimated to have 70,000 bodies of 100 km or larger.
Freeman Dyson has suggested that within a few centuries human civilization will have relocated to the Kuiper belt.[59]
The Oort Cloud is estimated to have up to a trillion comets.

Other Solar System locations

Statites

Main article: Statite
Statites or "static satellites" employ solar sails to position themselves in orbits that gravity alone could not accomplish. Such a solar sail colony would be free to ride solar radiation pressure and travel off the ecliptic plane. Navigational computers with an advanced understanding of flocking behavior could organize several statite colonies into the beginnings of the true "swarm" concept of a Dyson sphere.

Surfaces of gas giants

It may be possible to colonize the three farthest gas giants with floating cities in their atmospheres. By heating hydrogen balloons, large masses can be suspended underneath at roughly Earth gravity. A human colony on Jupiter would be less practical due to the planet's high gravity, escape velocity and radiation. Such colonies could export Helium-3 for use in fusion reactors if they ever become practical. Escape from the gas giants (especially Jupiter) seems well beyond current or near-term foreseeable chemical-rocket technology however, due to the combination of large velocity and high acceleration needed even to achieve low orbit.

Outside the Solar System

Main article: Interstellar travel

A star forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud
Looking beyond the Solar System, there are up to several hundred billion potential stars with possible colonization targets. The main difficulty is the vast distances to other stars: roughly a hundred thousand times further away than the planets in the Solar System. This means that some combination of very high speed (some percentage of the speed of light), or travel times lasting centuries or millennia, would be required. These speeds are far beyond what current spacecraft propulsion systems can provide.
Many scientific papers have been published about interstellar travel. Given sufficient travel time and engineering work, both unmanned and generational voyages seem possible, though representing a very considerable technological and economic challenge unlikely to be met for some time, particularly for manned probes.
Space colonization technology could in principle allow human expansion at high, but sub-relativistic speeds, substantially less than the speed of light, c.  An interstellar colony ship would be similar to a space habitat, with the addition of major propulsion capabilities and independent energy generation.
Hypothetical starship concepts proposed both by scientists and in hard science fiction include:
  • A generation ship would travel much slower than light, with consequent interstellar trip times of many decades or centuries. The crew would go through generations before the journey is complete, so that none of the initial crew would be expected to survive to arrive at the destination, assuming current human lifespans.
  • A sleeper ship, in which most or all of the crew spend the journey in some form of hibernation or suspended animation, allowing some or all who undertake the journey to survive to the end.
  • An Embryo-carrying Interstellar Starship (EIS), much smaller than a generation ship or sleeper ship, transporting human embryos or DNA in a frozen or dormant state to the destination. (Obvious biological and psychological problems in birthing, raising, and educating such voyagers, neglected here, may not be fundamental.)
  • A nuclear fusion or fission powered ship (e.g., ion drive) of some kind, achieving velocities of up to perhaps 10% c  permitting one-way trips to nearby stars with durations comparable to a human lifetime.
  • A Project Orion-ship, a nuclear-powered concept proposed by Freeman Dyson which would use nuclear explosions to propel a starship. A special case of the preceding nuclear rocket concepts, with similar potential velocity capability, but possibly easier technology.
  • Laser propulsion concepts, using some form of beaming of power from the Solar System might allow a light-sail or other ship to reach high speeds, comparable to those theoretically attainable by the fusion-powered electric rocket, above. These methods would need some means, such as supplementary nuclear propulsion, to stop at the destination, but a hybrid (light-sail for acceleration, fusion-electric for deceleration) system might be possible.
The above concepts all appear limited to high, but still sub-relativistic speeds, due to fundamental energy and reaction mass considerations, and all would entail trip times which might be enabled by space colonization technology, permitting self-contained habitats with lifetimes of decades to centuries. Yet human interstellar expansion at average speeds of even 0.1% of c  would permit settlement of the entire Galaxy in less than one half of a galactic rotation period of ~250,000,000 years, which is comparable to the timescale of other galactic processes. Thus, even if interstellar travel at near relativistic speeds is never feasible (which cannot be clearly determined at this time), the development of space colonization could allow human expansion beyond the Solar System without requiring technological advances that cannot yet be reasonably foreseen. This could greatly improve the chances for the survival of intelligent life over cosmic timescales, given the many natural and human-related hazards that have been widely noted.
The star Tau Ceti, about twelve light years away, has an abundance of cometary and asteroidal material in orbit around it. These materials could be used for the construction of space habitats for human settlement.
If humanity does gain access to a large amount of energy, on the order of the mass-energy of entire planets, it may eventually become feasible to construct Alcubierre drives. These are one of the few methods of superluminal travel which may be possible under current physics.

Intergalactic travel

Main article: Intergalactic travel
Looking beyond the Milky Way, there are about 100 billion other galaxies in the observable universe. The distances between galaxies are on the order of a million times further than those between the stars. Because of the speed of light limit on how fast any material objects can travel in space, intergalactic travel would either have to involve voyages lasting millions of years, or a possible faster than light propulsion method based on speculative physics, such as the Alcubierre drive. There are, however, no scientific reasons for stating that intergalactic travel is impossible in principle.

Funding

Space colonization can roughly be said to be possible when the necessary methods of space colonization become cheap enough (such as space access by cheaper launch systems) to meet the cumulative funds that have been gathered for the purpose.
Although there are no immediate prospects for the large amounts of money required for space colonization to be available given traditional launch costs,[60][full citation needed] there is some prospect of a radical reduction to launch costs in the 2010s, which would consequently lessen the cost of any efforts in that direction. With a published price of US$56.5 million per launch of up to 13,150 kg (28,990 lb) payload[61] to low Earth orbit, SpaceX Falcon 9 rockets are already the "cheapest in the industry".[62] Advancements currently being developed as part of the SpaceX reusable launch system development program to enable reusable Falcon 9s "could drop the price by an order of magnitude, sparking more space-based enterprise, which in turn would drop the cost of access to space still further through economies of scale."[62] If SpaceX is successful in developing the reusable technology, it would be expected to "have a major impact on the cost of access to space", and change the increasingly competitive market in space launch services.[63]
The President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy suggested that an inducement prize should be established, perhaps by government, for the achievement of space colonization, for example by offering the prize to the first organization to place humans on the Moon and sustain them for a fixed period before they return to Earth.[64]

Terrestrial analogues to space colonies

The most famous attempt to build an analogue to a self-sufficient colony is Biosphere 2, which attempted to duplicate Earth's biosphere. BIOS-3 is another closed ecosystem, completed in 1972 in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia.
Many space agencies build testbeds for advanced life support systems, but these are designed for long duration human spaceflight, not permanent colonization.
Remote research stations in inhospitable climates, such as the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station or Devon Island Mars Arctic Research Station, can also provide some practice for off-world outpost construction and operation. The Mars Desert Research Station has a habitat for similar reasons, but the surrounding climate is not strictly inhospitable.
Nuclear submarines provide an example of conditions encountered in artificial space environment. Crews of these vessels often spend long periods (6 months or more) submerged during their deployments. However, the submarine environment provides a somewhat open life support system since the vessel can replenish supplies of fresh water and oxygen from seawater.
Other examples of small groups in isolated living conditions are record long-distance flights, long-distance (single-handed) sails, oil platforms, prisons, bunkers, small islands and underground bases.
The study of terrestrial analogues is also a central focus in space architecture.

History

The first known work on space colonization was The Brick Moon, a work of fiction published in 1869 by Edward Everett Hale, about an inhabited artificial satellite.[65]
The Russian schoolmaster and physicist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky foresaw elements of the space community in his book Beyond Planet Earth written about 1900. Tsiolkovsky had his space travelers building greenhouses and raising crops in space.[66] Tsiolkovsky believed that going into space would help perfect human beings, leading to immortality and peace.[67]
Others have also written about space colonies as Lasswitz in 1897 and Bernal, Oberth, Von Pirquet and Noordung in the 1920s. Wernher von Braun contributed his ideas in a 1952 Colliers article. In the 1950s and 1960s, Dandridge M. Cole[68] published his ideas.
Another seminal book on the subject was the book The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space by Gerard K. O'Neill[69] in 1977 which was followed the same year by Colonies in Space by T. A. Heppenheimer.[70]
M. Dyson wrote Home on the Moon; Living on a Space Frontier in 2003;[71] Peter Eckart wrote Lunar Base Handbook in 2006[72] and then Harrison Schmitt's Return to the Moon written in 2007.[73]
As of 2013, Bigelow Aerospace is the only private commercial spaceflight company that has launched two experimental space station modules, Genesis I (2006) and Genesis II (2007),[74] into Earth-orbit, and is planning to launch their BA 330 commercial production module into space by 2014 or 2015.[citation needed]

Objections

A corollary to the Fermi paradox—"nobody else is doing it"—is the argument that because no evidence of alien colonization technology exists, it is statistically unlikely to even be possible using that same level of technology ourselves.
Colonizing space would require massive amounts of financial, physical and human capital devoted to research, development, production, and deployment. Earth's natural resources do not increase to a noteworthy extent (which is in keeping with the "only one Earth" position of environmentalists). Thus, considerable efforts in colonizing places outside Earth would appear as a hazardous waste of the Earth's limited resources for an aim without a clear end.
The fundamental problem of public things, needed for survival, such as space programs, is the free rider problem. Convincing the public to fund such programs would require additional self-interest arguments: If the objective of space colonization is to provide a "backup" in case everyone on Earth is killed, then why should someone on Earth pay for something that is only useful after they are dead? This assumes that space colonization is not widely acknowledged as a sufficiently valuable social goal.
Although seen as a relief to the problem of overpopulation, others have argued that space colonization is an impractical solution; in 1999, science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke said that "the population battle must be fought or won here on Earth".[75]
Other objections include concern about creating a culture in which humans are no longer seen as human, but rather as material assets. The issues of human dignity, morality, philosophy, culture, bioethics, and the threat of megalomaniac leaders in these new "societies" would all have to be addressed in order for space colonization to meet the psychological and social needs of people living in isolated colonies.[76]
As an alternative or addendum for the future of the human race, many science fiction writers have focused on the realm of the 'inner-space', that is the computer-aided exploration of the human mind and human consciousness—possibly en route developmentally to a Matrioshka Brain.
Robotic exploration is proposed as an alternative to gain many of the same scientific advantages without the limited mission duration and high cost of life support and return transportation involved in manned missions.
It could seem that nationalism might unfold ever bigger dangers, once one carries it up and out into space. The exploration of space stronger and stronger blocks up the practical possibility of a war, as it decisively strengthens the factor of deterrence.[77]
Another objection is the potential to cause interplanetary contamination on planets that may harbor hypothetical extraterrestrial life.

Involved organizations

Organizations that contribute to space colonization include:

In fiction

Main article: Space stations and habitats in popular culture
Although established space colonies are a stock element in science fiction stories, fictional works that explore the themes, social or practical, of the settlement and occupation of a habitable world are much rarer.

See also

Portal icon Spaceflight portal

References

  1. For example The Space Show, an online radio program, has had on average 16 shows per month going back to 2001, many of which discuss space settlement.
  2. Britt, Robert Roy (8 October 2001). "The Top 3 Reasons to Colonize Space". Space.com. Archived January 2, 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  3. Highfield, Roger (16 October 2001). "Colonies in space may be only hope, says Hawking". The Telegraph. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
  4. "Mankind must colonize other planets to survive, says Hawking". Daily Mail(London). 2006-12-01. Retrieved March 11, 2013
  5. Halle, Louis J. (Summer 1980). "A Hopeful Future for Mankind". Foreign Affairs 58 (5): 1129. doi:10.2307/20040585.
  6. Morgan, Richard (2006-08-01). "Life After Earth: Imagining Survival Beyond This Terra Firma". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
  7. Tierney, John (July 17, 2007). "A Survival Imperative for Space Colonization". The New York Times.
  8. Franck, S.; Bounama, C.; von Bloh, W. (November 2005). "Causes and timing of future biosphere extinction". Biogeosciences Discussions 2 (6): 1665–1679. Bibcode:2005BGD.....2.1665F. doi:10.5194/bgd-2-1665-2005. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
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  23. Asteroid Mining for Profit Don's Astronomy Pages
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  26. Billionaire PayPal founder announces dramatic Mars city bid, by Jack Losh; The Sun, January 6, 2013
  27. Reality TV for the Red Planet, by Nicola Clark; The New York Times, March 8, 2013
  28. Businessman Dennis Tito Financing Manned Mission to Mars, by Jane J. Lee; National Geographic News, February 22, 2013
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  55. from the WayBackMachine archive of http://www.planetary.org/news for 13 October 2008; the MESSENGER selection under PLANETARY NEWS
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  57. Robert Zubrin, Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization, section: Titan, pp. 163–166, Tarcher/Putnam, 1999, ISBN 978-1-58542-036-0
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  59. Freeman Dyson, The Sun, The Genome, and The Internet (1999) Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513922-4
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  62. Belfiore, Michael (2013-12-09). "The Rocketeer". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 2013-12-11.
  63. Amos, Jonathan (September 30, 2013). "Recycled rockets: SpaceX calls time on expendable launch vehicles". BBC News. Retrieved October 2, 2013.
  64. A Journey to Inspire, Innovate, and Discover - Report of the President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy, June 2004
  65. E. E. Hale. The Brick Moon. Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 24, 1869.
  66. K. E. Tsiolkovsky. Beyond Planet Earth. Trans. by Kenneth Syers. Oxford, 1960
  67. The life of Konstantin Eduardovitch Tsiolkovsky 1857–1935[dead link]
  68. Dandridge M. Cole and Donald W. Cox Islands in Space. Chilton, 1964
  69. G. K. O'Neill. The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space. Morrow, 1977.
  70. T. A. Heppenheimer. Colonies in Space. Stackpole Books, 1977
  71. Marianne J. Dyson: Living on a Space Frontier. National Geographic, 2003
  72. Peter Eckart. Lunar Base Handbook. McGraw-Hill, 2006
  73. Harrison H. Schmitt. Return to the Moon. Springer, 2007.
  74. Malik, Tariq; David, Leonard (June 28, 2007). "Bigelow's Second Orbital Module Launches Into Space". Space.com. Retrieved August 3, 2013.
  75. Clarke, Arthur C. (1999). Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds!. London: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-224698-8.
  76. SOCIOLOGY AND SPACE DEVELOPMENT B.J. Bluth, Sociology Department, California State University, Northridge, SPACE SOCIAL SCIENCE
  77. Sänger, Eugen (1963). Raumfahrt. München: Econ Verlag. pp. 30–37.
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Further reading

  • Harrison, Albert A. (2002). Spacefaring: The Human Dimension. Berkeley, CA, US: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23677-6.
  • Seedhouse, Erik (2009). Lunar Outpost: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on the Moon. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-387-09746-6. Also see [2]
  • Seedhouse, Erik (2009). Martian Outpost: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on Mars. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-387-98190-1. Also see [3], [4]
  • Seedhouse, Erik (2012). Interplanetary Outpost: The Human and Technological Challenges of Exploring the Outer Planets. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-9747-0.
  • Cameron M. Smith, Evan T. Davies, (2012). Emigrating Beyond Earth: Human Adaptation and Space Colonization. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4614-1164-2.
  • Tiziani, Moreno (Jun 2013). The Colonization of Space. An Anthropological Outlook 9 (1). Rome, Italy: Antrocom. pp. 225–236. ISSN 1973-2880
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Esteemed attorney, Patrick Krechowski, joins Jacksonville office

Published Wednesday, July 23, 2014

GrayRobinson, P.A. welcomes Patrick W. Krechowski to the Jacksonville office from Fidelity National Title Group, Inc., where he served as senior in-house counsel. Krechowski brings more than sixteen years of experience in governmental, environmental, land use and title insurance law to the Firm.


“We are honored that Patrick has joined our Jacksonville office,” said GrayRobinson President and Managing Director Byrd F. “Biff” Marshall, Jr. “His unique and extensive experience as counsel for organizations ranging from Fortune 500 companies to municipal government, will be a great asset to our clients.”

As senior in-house counsel for Fidelity National Title Group, Inc., Patrick directly managed multi-jurisdictional title insurance claims litigation ranging in exposure from $10,000 to in excess of $10 million including coverage and indemnity disputes, quality assurance and insurance regulations. He performed frequent analysis of complex real estate and land use issues in resolution of title disputes.


Krechowski is currently City Attorney for Neptune Beach, Fla., giving him a keen understanding of the political landscape in the greater Jacksonville area. He has extensive experience in Environmental and Land Use Law from his previous work at both the St. Johns River Water Management District and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Krechowski works with clients on various land use issues, including environmental resource permitting, consumptive use permitting, water use and compliance matters, and coastal construction permitting and compliance.

In addition to his ongoing position as City Attorney for Neptune Beach, Krechowski also serves as an adjunct professor at the Florida Coastal School of Law, teaching courses related to Environmental Law and Ocean & Coastal Law, among others. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Criminal Justice from Florida State University and his Juris Doctor from Nova Southeastern University Shepard Broad Law Center.

About GrayRobinson, P.A.
Founded in 1970, GrayRobinson is a full-service law firm providing legal assistance across the state of Florida. With nearly 300 attorneys and 12 offices throughout Florida, GrayRobinson proudly provides legal assistance for Fortune 500 companies, emerging businesses, lending institutions, local and state governments, developers, entrepreneurs and individuals. GrayRobinson has continued to stay ahead of the curve with a firm commitment to creativity and innovation. For more information, visit www.gray-robinson.com.

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Angelow

Looking Back at Maya Angelou’s Life and Work, in The Times and on Twitter

By JOHN WILLIAMS
Maya Angelou in 1998.Chester Higgins Jr./The New York TimesMaya Angelou in 1998.

Maya Angelou, the poet and performer who died on Wednesday at 86, was a regular presence in The Times throughout her varied career.

In 1970, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt reviewed the first volume of Ms. Angelou’s autobiography, “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings,” alongside a memoir by the boxer Sugar Ray Robinson. Mr. Lehmann-Haupt concluded, “The fact that Miss Angelou is black is absolutely essential to her story, of course.” He added, “Her story could not have happened to anyone. Yet the fact that she is black is also entirely irrelevant. The beauty is not in the story, but in the telling.”

When the second volume, “Gather Together in My Name,” appeared in 1974, Annie Gottlieb began her review: “Maya Angelou writes like a song, and like the truth.” She went on to write that Ms. Angelou “accomplishes the rare feat of laying her own life open to a reader’s scrutiny without the reflex-covering gesture of melodrama or shame. And as she reveals herself so does she reveal the black community, with a quiet pride, a painful candor and a clean anger.”

More coverage of Ms. Angelou’s life and work in The Times:

“All God’s Children Need Traveling Shoes” (1986)

An Afternoon With Maya Angelou (1993)

“A Song Flung Up to Heaven” (2002)

A visit to Ms. Angelou’s Harlem home (2007)

A chat with Ms. Angelou (2013)

Ms. Angelou’s op-ed about Clarence Thomas (1991)

Ms. Angelou was a dancer and actor as well as a writer, and the way she performed her poems played a significant role in their impact. In the clip below, Ms. Angelou reads one of her most famous works, “And Still I Rise”:

Twitter users have been sharing photos of Ms. Angelou and thoughts about her death in great numbers. A selection below:

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April 29, 2013
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Badlands National ParkFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, searchBadlands National ParkIUCN category II (national park)LocationJackson, Pennington, and Shannon counties, South Dakota, U.S.Nearest cityWall, South DakotaCoordinates43°45′00″N 102°30′00″W / 43.75000°N 102.50000°W / 43.75000; -102.50000Coordinates: 43°45′00″N 102°30′00″W / 43.75000°N 102.50000°W / 43.75000; -102.50000Area242,756 acres (98,240 ha)[1]EstablishedJanuary 29, 1939 (1939-January-29) as a National MonumentNovember 10, 1978 as a National ParkVisitors870,741 (in 2011)[2]Governing bodyNational Park ServiceMount RushmoreBlack Hills and BadlandsBadlands National ParkSculptureMount RushmoreCrazy HorseGeologic FormationsBadlandsNeedlesDevils TowerBear ButteSpearfish CanyonMountainsHarney PeakCavesWind CaveJewel CaveForestsCusterBlack HillsBlack ElkPrairie and GrasslandWind CaveBuffalo GapLakesSylvanPactolavteBadlands National Park is a national park in southwestern South Dakota that protects 242,756 acres (98,240 ha)[1] of sharply eroded buttes, pinnacles, and spires blended with the largest undisturbed mixed grass prairie in the United States. The park is managed by the National Park Service.The Badlands Wilderness protects 64,144 acres (25,958 ha) of the park as a designated wilderness area[3] and is the site of the reintroduction of the black-footed ferret, the most endangered land mammal in North America.[4]The Stronghold Unit is co-managed with the Oglala Lakota tribe and includes sites of 1890s Ghost Dances,[5] a former United States Air Force bomb and gunnery range,[6] and Red Shirt Table, the park's highest point at 3,340 feet (1,020 m).[7] Authorized as Badlands National Monument on March 4, 1929, it was not established until January 25, 1939. It was redesignated a national park on November 10, 1978.[8]Under the Mission 66 plan, the Ben Reifel Visitor Center was constructed for the monument in 1957–58. The park also administers the nearby Minuteman Missile National Historic Site.Contents [hide] 1 Prehistory1.1 Genera found in the area2 Human history2.1 Native Americans2.2 Fossil hunters2.3 Homesteaders2.4 Pine Ridge Indian Reservation3 Visiting the Park4 References5 External linksPrehistory[edit]Genera found in the area[edit]Restoration of genera present in the formations, by Jay MatternesAlligator (Crocodilian)Archaeotherium (Entelodont)Dinictis (Nimravid)Eporeodon (Oreodont)Eusmilus (Nimravid)Hoplophoneus (Nimravid)Hyaenodon (Creodont)Hyracodon (Running Rhino)Ischyromys (Ground Squirrel-like Rodent)Leptomeryx (Tragulid)Merycoidodon (Oreodont)Metamynodon (Aquatic Rhino)Miniochoerus (Oreodont)Poebrotherium (Camel)Subhyracodon (Rhinoceros)See also: White River Fauna for a list of fossil animals discovered in the formations that make up Badlands National Park and surrounding areas.Human history[edit]Native Americans[edit]False-color satellite image of the park (more information)For 11,000 years, Native Americans have used this area for their hunting grounds. Long before the Lakota were the little-studied paleo-Indians, followed by the Arikara people. Their descendants live today in North Dakota as a part of the Three Affiliated Tribes. Archaeological records combined with oral traditions indicate that these people camped in secluded valleys where fresh water and game were available year round. Eroding out of the stream banks today are the rocks and charcoal of their campfires, as well as the arrowheads and tools they used to butcher bison, rabbits, and other game. From the top of the Badlands Wall, they could scan the area for enemies and wandering herds. If hunting was good, they might hang on into winter, before retracing their way to their villages along the Missouri River. By one hundred and fifty years ago, the Great Sioux Nation consisting of seven bands including the Oglala Lakota, had displaced the other tribes from the northern prairie.The next great change came toward the end of the 19th century as homesteaders moved into South Dakota. The U.S. government stripped Native Americans of much of their territory and forced them to live on reservations. In the fall and early winter of 1890, thousands of Native American followers, including many Oglala Sioux, became followers of the Indian prophet Wovoka. His vision called for the native people to dance the Ghost Dance and wear Ghost Shirts, which would be impervious to bullets. Wovoka had predicted that the white man would vanish and their hunting grounds would be restored. One of the last known Ghost Dances was conducted on Stronghold Table in the South Unit of Badlands National Park. As winter closed in, the ghost dancers returned to Pine Ridge Agency. The climax of the struggle came in late December, 1890. Headed south from the Cheyenne River, a band of Minneconjou Sioux crossed a pass in the Badlands Wall. Pursued by units of the U.S. Army, they were seeking refuge in the Pine Ridge Reservation. The band, led by Chief Big Foot, was finally overtaken by the soldiers near Wounded Knee Creek in the Reservation and ordered to camp there overnight. The troops attempted to disarm Big Foot's band the next morning. Gunfire erupted. Before it was over, nearly three hundred Indians and thirty soldiers lay dead. The Wounded Knee Massacre was the last major clash between Plains Indians and the U.S. military until the advent of the American Indian Movement in the 1970s, most notably in the 1973 standoff at Wounded Knee, South Dakota.Wounded Knee is not within the boundaries of Badlands National Park. It is located approximately 45 miles (72 km) south of the park on Pine Ridge Reservation. The U.S. government and the Oglala Lakota Nation have agreed that this is a story to be told by the Oglala of Pine Ridge and Minneconjou of Standing Rock Reservation. The interpretation of the site and its tragic events are held as the primary responsibility of these survivors.Fossil hunters[edit]Aerial view, 3D computer generated imageThe history of the White River Badlands as a significant paleontological resource goes back to the traditional Native American knowledge of the area. The Lakota found large fossilized bones, fossilized seashells and turtle shells. They correctly assumed that the area had once been under water, and that the bones belonged to creatures which no longer existed.[citation needed] Paleontological interest in this area began in the 1840s. Trappers and traders regularly traveled the 300 miles (480 km) from Fort Pierre to Fort Laramie along a path which skirted the edge of what is now Badlands National Park. Fossils were occasionally collected, and in 1843 a fossilized jaw fragment collected by Alexander Culbertson of the American Fur Company found its way to a physician in St. Louis by the name of Dr. Hiram A. Prout.In 1846, Prout published a paper about the jaw in the American Journal of Science in which he stated that it had come from a creature he called a Paleotherium. Shortly after the publication, the White River Badlands became popular fossil hunting grounds and, within a couple of decades, numerous new fossil species had been discovered in the White River Badlands. In 1849, Dr. Joseph Leidy published a paper on an Oligocene camel and renamed Prout's Paleotherium, Titanotherium prouti. By 1854 when he published a series of papers about North American fossils, 84 distinct species had been discovered in North America – 77 of which were found in the White River Badlands. In 1870 a Yale professor, O. C. Marsh, visited the region and developed more refined methods of extracting and reassembling fossils into nearly complete skeletons. From 1899 to today, the South Dakota School of Mines has sent people almost every year and remains one of the most active research institutions working in the White River Badlands. Throughout the late 19th century and continuing today, scientists and institutions from all over the world have benefited from the fossil resources of the White River Badlands. The White River Badlands have developed an international reputation as a fossil-rich area. They contain the richest deposits of Oligocene mammals known, providing a brief glimpse of life in this area 33 million years ago.Homesteaders[edit]Aspects of American homesteading began before the end of the American Civil War; however, it didn't really impact the Badlands until the 20th century. Then, many hopeful farmers traveled to South Dakota from Europe or the eastern United States to try to eke out a living in the area. The standard size for a homestead was 160 acres (65 ha). Being in a semi-arid, wind-swept environment, this proved far too small of a holding to support a family. In 1916, in the western Dakotas, the size of a homestead was increased to 640 acres (260 ha). Cattle grazed the land, and crops such as winter wheat and hay were cut annually. However, the Great Dust Bowl events of the 1930s, combined with waves of grasshoppers, proved too much for most of the settlers of the Badlands. Houses, which had been built out of sod blocks and heated by buffalo chips, were abandoned. Those who remained today ranch and raise wheat.Pine Ridge Indian Reservation[edit]As part of the war effort, the U.S. Army Air Force (USAAF) took possession of 341,726 acres (138,292 ha) of land on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, home of the Oglala Sioux people, for a gunnery range. Included in this range was 337 acres (136 ha) from the Badlands National Monument. This land was used extensively from 1942 through 1945 as an air-to-air and air-to-ground gunnery range including both precision and demolition bombing exercises. After the war, portions of the bombing range were used as an artillery range by the South Dakota National Guard. In 1968, most of the range was declared excess property by the USAF though 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) are retained by the USAF but no longer used, the majority of the land was turned over to the National Park Service.Firing took place within most of the present day Stronghold District. Land was bought or leased from individual landowners and the Tribe in order to clear the area of human occupation. Old car bodies and 55 gallon drums painted bright yellow were used as targets. Bulls-eyes 250 feet (76 m) across were plowed into the ground and used as targets by bombardiers. Small automatic aircraft called "target drones" and 60-by-8-foot (18 by 2 m) screens dragged behind planes served as mobile targets. Today, the ground is littered with discarded bullet cases and unexploded ordnance.125 families were forcibly relocated from their farms and ranches in the 1940s including Dewey Beard, a survivor of the Wounded Knee Massacre. Those that remained nearby recall times when they had to dive under tractors while out cutting hay to avoid bombs dropped by planes miles outside of the boundary. In the town of Interior, both a church and the building housing the current post office were struck by six inch (152 mm) shells through the roof. Pilots operating out of Ellsworth Air Force Base near Rapid City found it a real challenge to determine the exact boundaries of the range. Fortunately, there were no civilian casualties. However, at least a dozen flight crew personnel lost their lives in plane crashes.The Stronghold District of Badlands National Park offers more than scenic badlands with spectacular views. Co-managed by the National Park Service and the Oglala Lakota Tribe, this 133,300-acre (53,900 ha) area is steeped in history. Deep draws, high tables and rolling prairie hold the stories of the earliest plains hunters, the paleo-Indians, as well as the present day Lakota Nation.Visiting the Park[edit]Tenting in the Cedar Pass CampgroundBadlands National Park has two campgrounds for overnight visits.[9]References[edit]^ Jump up to: a b "Listing of acreage as of December 31, 2011". Land Resource Division, National Park Service. Retrieved March 5, 2012. Jump up ^ "NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report". National Park Service. Retrieved March 5, 2012. Jump up ^ "Badlands Wilderness". Wilderness.net. Retrieved March 5, 2012. Jump up ^ "2008 Badlands Visitor Guide". National Park Service. p. 2. Retrieved March 12, 2011. Jump up ^ "Badlands National Park". Rand McNally. Retrieved March 12, 2011. "The cultural centerpiece of this section is the Stronghold Table, where the Oglala Sioux danced the Ghost Dance for the last time in 1890." [dead link]Jump up ^ "Pine Ridge Gunnery Range/Badlands Bombing Range". South Dakota; Department of Environment & Natural Resources. Archived from the original on March 9, 2011. Retrieved March 12, 2011. Jump up ^ "U.S. National Park High Points". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved March 17, 2008. Jump up ^ "The National Parks: Index 2009–2011". National Park Service. Retrieved March 5, 2012. Jump up ^ http://www.nps.gov/badl/planyourvisit/camping.htmExternal links[edit]Find more about Badlands National Park at Wikipedia's sister projectsMedia from CommonsTravel guide from WikivoyageBadlands National Park - official National Park Service websiteBadlands Visitor Information websiteBadlands Bombing Range - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers[show]vteNational parks of the United StatesAcadiaAmerican SamoaArchesBadlandsBig BendBiscayneBlack Canyon of the GunnisonBryce CanyonCanyonlandsCapitol ReefCarlsbad CavernsChannel IslandsCongareeCrater LakeCuyahoga ValleyDeath ValleyDenaliDry TortugasEvergladesGates of the ArcticGlacierGlacier BayGrand CanyonGrand TetonGreat BasinGreat Sand DunesGreat Smoky MountainsGuadalupe MountainsHaleakalāHawaiʻi VolcanoesHot SpringsIsle RoyaleJoshua TreeKatmaiKenai FjordsKings CanyonKobuk ValleyLake ClarkLassen VolcanicMammoth CaveMesa VerdeMount RainierNorth CascadesOlympicPetrified ForestPinnaclesRedwoodRocky MountainSaguaroSequoiaShenandoahTheodore RooseveltVirgin IslandsVoyageursWind CaveWrangell–St. EliasYellowstoneYosemiteZion List of national parks of the United States (by elevation)[show]vteProtected areas of South DakotaFederalNational ParksBadlandsWind CaveNational Historic Sitesand MemorialsMinuteman Missile NHSMount Rushmore NMemNational MonumentJewel CaveNational ForestsBlack HillsCusterNational GrasslandsBuffalo GapDakota PrairieFort PierreGrand RiverNational Historic TrailLewis and ClarkNational Recreational RiverMissouriNational Wildlife RefugesHuron WMDKarl E. MundtLacreekLake AndesMadison WMDSand LakeSand Lake WMDWaubayWaubay WMDNational Wilderness AreasBadlandsBlack ElkStateState ParksAdams Homestead and Nature PreserveBear ButteCusterFisher GroveFort SissetonGood EarthHartford BeachLake HermanLone PineNewton HillsOakwood LakesPalisadesRoy LakeSica HollowUnion GroveState Recreation AreasAngosturaBeaver CreekBig SiouxBig Stone IslandBurke LakeBuryanekChief White CraneCow CreekFarm IslandGeorge S. Mickelson TrailIndian CreekLaFramboise IslandLake AlvinLake CochraneLake HiddenwoodLake LouiseLake PoinsettLake ThompsonLake VermillionLewis and ClarkLittle MoreauLlewellyn JohnsMina LakeNorth PointNorth WheelerOahe DownstreamOkobojo PointPease CreekPelican LakePickerel LakePierson RanchPlatte CreekRandall CreekRichmond LakeSandy ShoreShadehillSnake CreekSpirit Mound Historic PrairieSpringfieldSwan CreekWalker's PointWest BendWest PollackWest Whitlock Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Badlands_National_Park&oldid=605704286" Categories: IUCN Category IIBadlandsBadlands National ParkArchaeological sites in South DakotaOligocene mammalsProtected areas established in 1939Protected areas of Jackson County, South DakotaProtected areas of Pennington County, South DakotaProtected areas of Shannon County, South Dakota1939 establishments in South DakotaHidden categories: All articles with dead external linksArticles with dead external links from March 2012Use mdy dates from June 2012Coordinates on WikidataAll articles with unsourced statementsArticles with unsourced statements from April 2014Navigation menuPersonal toolsCreate accountLog in NamespacesArticleTalkVariantsViewsReadEditView historyActionsSearchNavigationMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikimedia ShopInteractionHelpAbout WikipediaCommunity portalRecent changesContact pageWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationData itemCite this pageCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesالعربيةБългарскиCatalàDanskDeutschEspañolفارسیFrançaisHrvatskiItalianoLietuviųNederlands日本語Norsk bokmålPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRuna SimiРусскийShqipSuomiSvenskaTürkçe中文Edit links This page was last modified on 25 April 2014 at 04:43.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Literary MagazinesBrowse the literary magazines listed in NewPages to find short stories and longer fiction, poetry, creative nonfiction, essays, literary criticism, book reviews, author interviews, art and photography. The magazine editor's description for each sponsored literary magazine gives you an overview of editorial styles—what writers they have published and what they are looking for (with contact information, subscription rates, submission guidelines, and more).Sponsored Lit Mag ListingsA BC DE FG HI JK LMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ New & Featured Listingselsewhere elsewhere is an online bimonthly publication of flash fiction and prose poetry. [o][Read more about elsewhere]The Idaho ReviewAn annual review of literary fiction and poetry, highlighting an array of distinguished writers as well as new and exciting voices of emerging writers.[Read more about The Idaho Review]Southern Humanities ReviewFiction, poetry, personal and critical essays, and book reviews on the arts, literature, philosophy, religion, cultural studies, and history by new and established writers. Also publishes translations. [Read more about Southern Humanities Review]The Write Place At the Write TimeWe are about the synchronistic convergences of time, place, readers, and writers that create unforgettable moments where lives change course and dreams are born. [o][Read more about The Write Place At the Write Time]2River ViewSince 1996, an online site of poetry, art, and theory, quarterly publishing The 2River View and occasionally publishing individual authors in the 2River Chapbook Series, as well as podcasting 2River authors from the Muddy Bank blog. 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Proudly welcomes newer poets alongside the biggest names in the small press.[Read more about The Aurorean]Btop of page The Baltimore ReviewPublishing since 1996, The Baltimore Review is an online and print journal of fiction, creative nonfiction, and poetry, as well as visual and video arts. [o][Read more about The Baltimore Review]BateauLetterpress literary magazine publishing poetry, short fiction, playlets, comics, illustration, and mini creative reviews. [Read more about Bateau]Bellevue Literary ReviewBellevue Literary Review is a unique literary magazine that examines human existence through the prism of health and healing, illness and disease.[Read more about Bellevue Literary Review]Bellingham ReviewThe Bellingham Review publishes “literature of palpable quality.” We showcase works of poetry, fiction, and creative nonfiction. 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[Read more about Black Warrior Review]The Bloomsbury Review®The Bloomsbury Review includes reviews, interviews with and profiles of authors; essays; original poetry; and a variety of features covering a broad range of book-related topics. [Read more about The Bloomsbury Review]The Boiler"The Boiler publishes some of the liveliest writing I’ve seen online today."—The Adirondack Review. We publish new and emerging writers on a quarterly basis. [o][Read more about The Boiler]Booth“The Booth editors seem to have a knack for attracting and selecting pieces that get right into my marrow, fill my bones full with breathing and want.” –Vouched Books. [o/p][Read more about Booth]BoulevardBoulevard strives to publish only the finest in fiction, poetry, and non-fiction—the best of prominent and well-known writers alongside new and emerging ones. [Read more about Boulevard] The Briar Cliff ReviewFounded in 1989, The Briar Cliff Review is an eclectic literary, cultural and art magazine. 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We publish online the kind of stories that linger long after they are read—stories that are honest, that are willing to reveal the flaws and the beauty hidden in each of us. [o/p][Read more about Carve Magazine] Cave WallCave Wall publishes the best contemporary poetry by emerging and established poets. Each issue features black and white artwork, as well.[Read more about Cave Wall]Chagrin River ReviewOut of Northeast Ohio, Chagrin River Review brings you the latest fiction and poetry from exciting new writers, and new work from writers long established. [o][Read more about Chagrin River Review]The Chattahoochee ReviewFor over thirty years, The Chattahoochee Review has published excellent writing from the South and around the world. 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Publishing meaningful, exciting work since 2012.[Read more about The Cossack Review]Court GreenPoetry journal published annually in association with the English Department at Columbia College Chicago. Each issue features a dossier on a special topic or theme. [Read more about Court Green]CrazyhorseCrazyhorse publishes the entire spectrum of today's fiction, essays, and poetry—from the mainstream to the avant-garde, from the established to the undiscovered writer. [Read more about Crazyhorse]Creative NonfictionCreative Nonfiction is the first and the largest journal devoted exclusively to literary nonfiction.[Read more about Creative Nonfiction]Cumberland River Review"Every issue is a revelation." —Davis McCombs, National Book Critics Circle Award finalist for Ultima Thule [o][Read more about Cumberland River Review]CutBankA journal of compelling poetry, fiction, and literary nonfiction. [Read more about CutBank]CutthroatWe publish high-quality poetry and short fiction from well-known as well as previously unpublished authors.[Read more about Cutthroat]Dtop of pageDigital AmericanaWe publish Americana—stories, poetry, & prose that possess a modern American quality. Our acclaimed interactive-magazine is made for the iPad, iPhone, and in print. [e-pub][Read more about Digital Americana]Dogwood Dogwood: A Journal of Poetry and Prose is an award-winning annual print journal founded in 2001—also available via LitRagger—publishing fiction, nonfiction, and poetry.[print][e-pub] [Read more about Dogwood]Drunken BoatDrunken Boat, an award-winning international online journal of the arts, publishes the best of traditional forms of representation alongside web art, hypertext, multimedia, audio, and video. [o][Read more about Drunken Boat] Etop of pageelsewhere elsewhere is an online bimonthly publication of flash fiction and prose poetry. [o][Read more about elsewhere]Exit 7Exit 7 is produced annually by West Kentucky Community and Technical College and seeks to publish outstanding work from both established and emerging writers.[Read more about Exit 7]Ftop of pageFairy Tale ReviewFairy Tale Review is an annual literary journal dedicated to publishing new fairy-tale fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and translations of fairy tales into English.[Read more about Fairy Tale Review]Feile-FestaFeile-Festa is an online, literary arts journal that features poets and writers from all the regions of the United States, as well as Australia, Canada, Ireland, Italy and Scotland. This multicultural journal includes photographs that evoke life primarily in New York City and sometimes Ireland and Italy. [o][Read more about Feile-Festa]The Fertile SourceFertile Source is a literary ezine devoted to fertility, infertility, and adoption-related topics. We accept fiction, non-fiction, poetry, artwork, photos, and reviews of fertility-related publications. [o][Read more about The Fertile Source]FiddleblackFiddleblack is a small press & journal of literature. We like self and place, antipastoralism and concept horror. [o][Read more about Fiddleblack]The FiddleheadThe Fiddlehead, Atlantic Canada's international literary journal, is entertainment for the thoughtful with its mix of poetry and stories by established and new writers.[Read more about The Fiddlehead]FIELDFor 40 years FIELD has been celebrated as one of the most stimulating journals of contemporary poetry and poetics in the nation.[Read more about FIELD]The First LineThe First Line is unaffiliated, unfunded, unassuming, and far from uninspiring. It is a writer’s journal for readers. [Read more about The First Line]The Florida ReviewThe Florida Review publishes innovative fiction, nonfiction, poetry, reviews, and graphic narrative by established and emerging writers. Spring Editors' Prize awards $1000 in each genre.[Read more about The Florida Review]Foliate OakThe Foliate Oak Literary Magazine features cutting edge writing and artwork from writers and artists all over the world. [o/p][Read more about Foliate Oak]Four ChambersFour Chambers is an independent literary magazine based in Phoenix, AZ. We're publishing work to build community.[Read more about Four Chambers]Fourteen HillsFourteen Hills is a biannual journal publishing the highest quality experimental, progressive, and traditional fiction, poetry, literary nonfiction, short plays, and visual art.[Read more about Fourteen Hills]Fourth GenreDevoted to publishing notable, innovative work in creative nonfiction, including personal essays and memoirs, graphic essays, experimental forms, and book reviews.[Read more about Fourth Genre]The Fourth RiverThe Fourth River seeks works that approaches nature and place in fresh, unexpected ways.[Read more about The Fourth River]FrostwritingFrostwriting, an online journal, encourages developing writers trying to put broadly cross-cultural experiences into words. Should these words in any way involve Sweden, all the better. [o][Read more about Frostwriting] Gtop of page GargoyleGargoyle Magazine has always been a scallywag magazine, a maverick magazine, a bit too academic for the underground and way too underground for the academics.[Read more about Gargoyle Magazine]Gemini MagazineGemini Magazine is an online journal with no rules. We are open to any form of fiction, poetry, memoir, creative nonfiction, art, photography, or other creative work. Every submission gets an equal chance, no matter who it is from.[Read more about Gemini Magazine]Georgetown ReviewWe publish fiction, poetry, and creative nonfiction by both new and established writers. $1,000 contest prize awarded each fall. [Read more about Georgetown Review]The Georgia ReviewEach issue of The Georgia Review features some 200 pages of fiction, poetry, essays, and reviews—as well as a visual art portfolio, usually in color. [Read more about Georgia Review]The Gettysburg ReviewThe Gettysburg Review publishes poetry, prose, and visual art by established and emerging talents in issues that are as handsome as they are stimulating.[Read more about Gettysburg Review]Glimmer Train StoriesQuarterly literary magazine. 260 pages of short stories by new and established writers from around the world. No advertising. A feast of fiction.[Read more about Glimmer Train Stories]Green Mountains ReviewGreen Mountains Review publishes poetry, fiction, creative nonfiction, literary essays, interviews, and book reviews. We print work by both well-known writers and promising newcomers.[Read more about Green Mountains Review]The Greensboro ReviewWe publish fiction and poetry twice a year, each fall and spring. Work from the journal is consistently cited in collections honoring the finest new writing.[Read more about The Greensboro Review]GristThe University of Tennessee’s new journal publishes literary fiction, poetry, interviews, and essays on craft.[Read more about Grist]Gulf CoastCommitted to publishing high quality fiction, poetry, nonfiction, and critical art writing from both established and emerging writers. Includes full-color art, interviews, and book reviews.[Read more about Gulf Coast]Htop of pageHamilton Arts & Letters Hamilton Arts & Letters magazine is a biannual online publication featuring artwork, interviews, reviews, essays, poetry, fiction, creative nonfiction, film, and sound. [o][Read more about Hamilton Arts & Letters]Hampden-Sydney Poetry ReviewOne of the longest-running poetry journals in the country. “I like the look of it, the feel of it—the taste of it.” —William Stafford [Read more about Hampden-Sydney Poetry Review]Hanging LooseHanging Loose magazine, first published in 1966, has consistently published fresh, lively writing by new and older authors who deserve a wider audience. [Read more about Hanging Loose] Hayden’s Ferry ReviewHayden’s Ferry Review showcases the voices of emerging and established talents in creative writing and visual art from the national and international community [Read more about Hayden's Ferry Review]High Desert JournalHDJ is a literary and visual arts magazine dedicated to further understanding the people, places and issues of the interior West. [Read more about High Desert Journal]Hiram Poetry ReviewThe Hiram Poetry Review has been publishing witty, distinctive and heroic poetry since 1966.[Read more about Hiram Poetry Review]The Hudson ReviewSince 1948, focusing on how literature bears on the intellectual life of the time. Publishes undiscovered writers. Poetry, fiction, critical essays, book reviews, arts chronicles.[Read more about The Hudson Review]Itop of pageThe Idaho ReviewAn annual review of literary fiction and poetry, highlighting an array of distinguished writers as well as new and exciting voices of emerging writers.[Read more about The Idaho Review]Indiana ReviewNow in its 36th year of publication, Indiana Review is a non-profit literary magazine dedicated to showcasing the talents of emerging and established writers.[Read more about Indiana Review]The Iowa ReviewDedicated to publishing the finest contemporary fiction, poetry, and creative nonfiction.[Read more about The Iowa Review]J - Ktop of pageJewish Fiction .net Jewish Fiction .net showcases the finest contemporary Jewish-themed fiction from around the world (either written in, or translated into, English). Stories and novel excerpts welcome. [o][Read more about Jewish Fiction .net]JukedIndependent literary journal that publishes fiction, poetry, nonfiction, and photography. Our online edition is updated once or twice a week, and our print publication comes out annually. In publication since 1999. [o/p][Read more about Juked]The Kenyon ReviewThe Kenyon Review features the best new writing by established and emerging authors. [Read more about Kenyon Review]Ltop of pageThe LabletterThe Labletter is an annual magazine of art and literature that has its roots in the Oregon Lab, the name given to a group of artists and their annual gathering[Read more about The Labletter]LalitambaLalitamba is an international journal of writings for liberation.[Read more about Lalitamba]The Ledge MagazineAn independent publication featuring cutting-edge contemporary poetry and fiction by both established and emerging poets and writers.[Read more about The Ledge Magazine]The Literary BohemianThe Literary Bohemian is the final online destination for first-class, travel-inspired writing that transports the reader, non-stop, to Elsewhere. [o][Read more about Literary Bohemian]Literary JuiceLiterary Juice is produced from 100% pure originality. We feature works of fiction and poetry that are clever, bold, and even weird! [o][Read more about Literary Juice]Literary LaundryLiterary Laundry is an online journal that publishes two issues per year. We publish poetry, prose-fiction, and one-act drama. [o][Read more about Literary Laundry]The Louisville ReviewSince 1976, The Louisville Review has published the best of contemporary writing in fiction, poetry, creative nonfiction, drama, and writing by children (K-12). [Read more about The Louisville Review] Browse Next Page of Literary Magazine Guidetop of page MagazinesLiterary MagazinesAlternative MagazinesLit Mag Reviews Screen ReadingMagazine StandWriters ResourcesCalls for SubmissionsWriting ContestsCreative Writing ProgramsWriting ConferencesBlogs of Poets & WritersBooksPublishersBook ReviewsBook StandAuthor-Published BooksBooksellersIndependent BookstoresGuides & FeaturesPodcasts - Video/AudioReview SourcesAlternative NewsweekliesUncle Frank's DiaryIndie Record LabelsBlogs & News SitesInterviews/FeaturesYoung Authors GuideNewPages infoContact/FAQSearchDonate NEW! Buy single copies of great literary magazines.The NewPages Webstore.Our Big List of Literary Magazines is [ here ]Literary Links- guide to recommended literary sitesNEW list of undergraduate literary magazinesNEW list of blogs by poets & writers. If your blog isn't listed, give us a holler.The Magazine Stand showcases new issues of lit and alt mags received. 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May 31, 2014

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101 South Main
Park Rapids, MN 56470
Phone: 218-732-3381
Office: 800-248-4032
Fax: 218-732-5892

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Located in Park Rapids, in the heart of the lakes country and home to the Headwaters of the Mississippi River. Coldwell Banker Clack And Dennis Real Estate is the oldest, most experienced real estate company in the area.

Mary Beth Anderson
Mary Beth Anderson
Realtor 		Rhonda Gartner
Rhonda Gartner
Realtor 		Marvel Haynes
Marvel Haynes
Realtor, ABR, CRS, GRI 		Mel Holtan
Mel Holtan
Realtor, Auctioneer, GRI 		Kelli Johnson
Kelli Johnson
Realtor, GRI
Elaine Kniefel
Elaine Kniefel
Realtor 		Robert Mack
Robert Mack
Realtor 		Dani Ondracek
Dani Ondracek
Realtor, GRI, ABR 		Thom Peterson
Thom Peterson
Realtor, CRS, GRI 		James Preiner
James Preiner
Realtor
Katelyn Warmbold
Katelyn Warmbold
Realtor 		Justin Clack
Justin Clack
Broker/Owner 		Diane Dennis
Diane Dennis
Broker/Owner

We have 2 full-time staff members who handle the clerical and computer operations of our company, as well as a team of 14 real estate professionals dedicated to professionalism, honesty and customer service.

We invite all prospective clients and customers to come and take a full tour of our high-tech facility and take a look at our photo gallery of available properties.

Coldwell Banker Clack & Dennis Real Estate is licensed in the State of Minnesota

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Blue Heron Beach Resort

A lakefront, condominium-style, resort featuring one- and two-bedroom family-friendly suites less than one mile from the entrance to Walt Disney World.

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Blue Heron Beach Resort

13428 Blue Heron Beach Drive

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Blue Heron Beach Resort

A lakefront, condominium-style, resort featuring one- and two-bedroom family-friendly suites less than one mile from the entrance to Walt Disney World.

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Outdoor Pool

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Bar

24-Hour Front Desk

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Lanai

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what a novel idea

Home Overview Demo Screenshots Feedback Authors FAQ Shop Contact The complete novel writing software package What people are saying about novel writing with NewNovelist Other Products For the younger writer NewNovelist Version 3 (Windows 8, 7 or Vista) Newnovelist is a Windows program that helps people who want to write a novel... complete their novel. Version 3 Second Edition contains many new and exciting features but still provides the unique help that has enabled so many people get published in the last 12 years. It uses a new, stunningly powerful Microsoft technology which brings a whole new experience to the aspiring novel writer. Newnovelist 1 Launched 2001 Newnovelist 2 Launched 2006 Newnovelist 3 Second Edition Launched October 2012 If you are going to write a novel you have come to the right place. You need something which is tried and proven, you need the best - you need Newnovelist. The original and best for only $47.99 - £29.99! Buy Newnovelist 3 now with world class online support and a full 30 day money back warranty if you are not satisfied. Hot Links • Features • Why use novel writing software? • Why use NewNovelist? • Flash Demo • Screenshots The Problem Let’s face it – writing a book takes time. LOTS of it. Until now, aspiring writers and novelists faced - and let’s be honest – a gut-wrenching, slow and grueling writing process. We know what you’re going through. You probably have lots of notes in your head. You’ve gotten up at 3am just to jot down a great idea you had. Something strikes you for inspiration, and you’ve just got to write that chapter – NOW – before you forget. NewNovelist provides you with a huge of array of templates to help you get started and provides you with professional, creative writing advice - if you need it. But you’re supposed to use some ‘process’. That means you can’t start your novel now - you have to wait until you’ve got things in sequential order. For a writer trying to make a living, that’s a killer. NewNovelist has turned the writing process on its head. With this revolutionary software, you can write your novel the way you want to. You don't have to be a slave to old, slow, archaic writing rituals and methods. "A great gift for aspirant novelists” The Independent newspaper You’ve got great ideas. Your characters are in your head. You know how you want the ending to be. You know you can do this... …. so why are you still staring at a blank computer screen or sheet of paper? If you’ve ever tried to write a novel (or even just thought about it), you know the routine. You just can’t put everything together. You’ve got to work step by step to write a great book, right? - Not anymore! - Not with NewNovelist! 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It means you can stop wasting time and start writing. Remember – the faster you write your novel, the faster you can get your book published and become a published author with all the trimmings. "NewNovelist hasn't changed the way I do things; but it has made me get off my butt and actually go do them. And for any writer, that can't be bad" Nick Ford - The Guardian – England Your time is too valuable to put up with poor imitations of this original software! If you are going to write a successful novel you need the best tools available to get there - You need NewNovelist! Stop Wasting Time - Get started on your next 'Best Seller' with NewNovelist software! Buy Newnovelist 3 now with world class online support and a full 30 day money back warranty if you are not satisfied. Want to know more? Please click on an option below to get more information: Online Flash Demo Screenshots Home - Overview - Demo - Screenshots - Authors - FAQ - Shop - Contact - Articles - Book in a month - Self Publishing

cass county mi8nnesota and environs



CONTACT US:Phone: 218-947-7522 Email: cass.edc@co.cass.mn.us

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Cass County has 65 growing and active cities and townships for growing businesses. State Highway 371 connects Brainerd, Pine River, Backus, Hackensack to Walker and Bemidji. Cass Lake and Pillager have rail spurs for fast and easy accessibility.
Cass County Economic Development Corporation is proud of the role these cities and townships play in creating a great place to live, work and play. These communities offer a great workforce and room to grow. Cass County is truly "Minnesota Nice!"
Northern Communities include: Walker: Leading manufacturing businesses in this community are CavCom, Inc., Wilkening Fireplace, Inc. and Next Innovations, LTD. This city also includes two clinics, assisted living options, First National Bank of Walker, Bank Forward and as the county seat, is home to the Cass County Government Center. Map PDF
Cass Lake: This community is home to Cass Forest Products and many fine resorts and retail stores such as Teals Super Value and Cass Lake Building Supply. Map PDF
Remer: Remer Cut Stock Lumber is a leading manufacturer in Remer. This community is also home to Woodland Bank, Essentia Healthcare Clinic, Crosby Eye Care, many fine churches and Northland School District #118. Map PDF
Longville: The city of Longville is world renowned for its beautiful vacation options. It is home to Longville Lakes Marine, Cuyuna Lakes Clinic and two bank branches. Map PDF
Central Communities include: Hackensack: The community of Hackensack is home to Bear Pause Theatre, Essentia Healthcare Clinic, Mann Lake Supply, LTD., Hackensack Sr. Class and many fine churches. Ten Mile Lake and 126 other lakes are in a 10-mile radius of Hackensack. Map PDF
Backus: Scamp Trailers are manufactured and sold at the headquarters of Eveland’s, Inc. of Backus, MN. Other amenities of Backus include a senior center and the Backus Corner Store and Sport Shop on the corner of County Road #87 and State Highway #371. Map PDF
Pine River: Established manufacturing businesses already in Pine RIver are: Trussworthy Components, Inc., Universal Templates, Down to Earth Furniture and Hunt Utility Group (HUG), although there is room for more. The Paul Bunyan Trail, Pine River State Bank, Good Samaritan Home are other fine features of Pine River. Map PDF
Southern Communities include:Pillager: This community is home to Manion Truss, the Shante Coffee Shop, Riverside Assisted Living, two clinics and the Pillager K-12 School District #116. Map PDF
City of Lake Shore: The beautiful city of Lake Shore is well known for its premier housing and resorts along beautiful Gull Lake. Map PDF
City of East Gull Lake: This community located on the southern shores of attractive Gull Lake in southern Cass County. East Gull Lake is home to three nationally-known resorts – Madden’s on Gull Lake, Cragun’s Resort & Hotel on Gull Lake and Kavanaugh’s Sylvan Lake Resort. Map PDF



"The EDC knew just who to call and they did it!”

- Steven C. Olson, Chase on the Lake


SUCCESS STORIES
Trussworthy Components, Inc.Owner Craig Anderson invested $943,000 to construct a new facility for his business. The EDC coordinated the financing and the JOBZ designation plus a $167,000 grant for the industrial park infrastructure.



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Cass CountyEconmic Development CorporationPO Box 142218 Washburn Ave EastBackus MN 56435218-947-7522 cass.edc@co.cass.mn.us©2011 Cass County EDC