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Linguistics and culture






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Linguistics

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This article is about the field of study. For the journal, see Linguistics (journal).
"Linguist" redirects here. For other uses, see Linguist (disambiguation).
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Linguistics is the scientific[1] study of language.[2] There are broadly three aspects to the study, which include language form, language meaning, and language in context.[3] The earliest known activities in the description of language have been attributed to Pāṇini around 500 BCE, with his analysis of Sanskrit in Ashtadhyayi.[4]
Language can be understood as an interplay of sound and meaning.[5] The discipline that studies linguistic sound is termed as phonetics, which is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds and non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived. The study of language meaning, on the other hand, is concerned with how languages employ logic and real-world references to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as to manage and resolve ambiguity. This in turn includes the study of semantics (how meaning is inferred from words and concepts) and pragmatics (how meaning is inferred from context).[6]
There is a system of rules (known as grammar) which govern the communication between members of a particular speech community. Grammar is influenced by both sound and meaning, and includes morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words), and phonology (sound systems).[7] Through corpus linguistics, large chunks of text can be analysed for possible occurrences of certain linguistic features, and for stylistic patterns within a written or spoken discourse.[8]
The study of such cultural discourses and dialects is the domain of sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures, as well as that of discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations.[9] Research on language through historical and evolutionary linguistics focuses on how languages change, and the origin and growth of languages, particularly over an extended period of time.
During the 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the specific utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles and system of rules that govern a language.[10] In classical Indian philosophy of language, Patanjali distinguished between sphota (meaning) and dhvani (sound) in the creation of shabda, which literally means "spoken word".
Katyayana, another Indian philosopher, further distinguished between shabda (utterance) and artha (meaning). In modern-day theoretical linguistics, Noam Chomsky distinguishes between the notions of competence and performance, where competence is the inherent capacity for language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used.[11]
Traditionally, speech, or shabda, has thus been assigned the role of the central signifier in language, with writing being seen only as its reflection. But in his 1967 book, Of Grammatology, Jacques Derrida critiqued this arbitrary distinction between speech and writing, and emphasised on how written symbols are also legitimate signifiers in themselves.[12]
The study of language as a formal system, as propounded by Chomsky[13] in his theory of generative linguistics, led to the emergence of research through fields like psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at language processing in the brain; and language acquisition, which investigates on how children and adults acquire a particular language.[14] During the 70s and 80s, research developments also took shape in the field of cognitive linguistics through theorists such as George Lakoff, who view language as a conceptual function of the mind, as opposed to a pre-defined grammatical template.
Language is also influenced by social, cultural, historical and political factors,[15] and linguistics can be applied to semiotics, for instance, which is the general study of signs and symbols both within language and without. Literary critics study the use of language in literature. Translation entails the conversion of a text from one language to another. Speech language pathologists work on corrective measures to remove communication disorders largely at the phonetic level, employing a combination of cognitive and phonological devices.
Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry to describe languages and their grammars. Lexicographers map vocabularies in languages to write dictionaries and encyclopedias and edit other such educational material for publishing houses. In the age of digital technology, linguists, translators, and lexicographers work on computer language to facilitate and create web entities and digital dictionaries on both mobile as well as desktop machines, and create software through technical and human language that enables a large number of social functions, from designing to even machine-based translation itself. Actual knowledge of a language can be applied in the teaching of it as a second or foreign language. Research experiments in linguistics have in the recent years, seen communities of linguists build new constructed languages like Esperanto, to test the theories of language in an abstract and artificial setting. Policy makers work with the government to implement new plans in education and teaching which are based on certain linguistic factors.


Nomenclature[edit]

Before the 20th century, the term philology, first attested in 1716,[16] was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus.[17][18] Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted[19] and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history, and literary tradition", especially in the United States[20] (where philology has never been very popularly considered as the "science of language").[21]
Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641,[22] the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847.[22] It is now the common academic term in English for the scientific study of language.
Today, the term linguist applies to someone who studies language or is a researcher within the field, or to someone who uses the tools of the discipline to describe and analyze specific languages.[23]

Variation and Universality[edit]

While some theories on linguistics focus on the different varieties that language produces, among different sections of society, others focus on the universal properties that are common to all given languages at one given time on the planet. The theory of variation therefore would elaborate on the different usages of popular languages like French and English across the globe, as well as its smaller dialects and regional permutations within their national boundaries. The theory of variation looks at the cultural stages that a particular language undergoes, and these include the following.
The first stage is pidgin, or that phase in the creation of a language's variation when new, non-native speakers undertake a mainstream language and use its phrases and words in a broken manner that often attempts to be overly literal in meaning. At this junction, many of the linguistic characteristics of the native speakers' own language or mother tongue influence their use of the mainstream language, and that is when it arrives at the latter stage of being called a creole. Creoles are dialects or languages that have been nativised after synthesizing two parent languages, because there are people who grow up speaking a language when it is at that stage.
For instance, when a Chinese speaker just begins to speak English, he or she will at first use English at the level of a pidgin language: broken words, lack of grammatical form and structure, and weak or negligible vocabulary. Once the Chinese speaker begins to learn English and use it to its full capacity, the generations that follow and learn the language will become a variety of English, and this variety may be referred to as a creole language. "Chinese English" (as opposed to British English or American English, which have a longer history as varieties), is therefore a creole. Hence, this process in the creation of dialects and varieties of languages as globally popular as English and French, as well as others like Spanish, for instance, is one that is rooted in the changing evolution and growth of each language. These variating factors are studied in order to understand the different usages and dialects that a language develops over time. Some of the recent research done in this arena includes David Crystal's analysis of the use of English, as well as his study of changing trends in language usage on the Internet, through his formulation of a new field of study that has been titled Internet linguistics.[24]

Lexicon[edit]

The lexicon is a catalogue of words and terms that are stored in a speaker's mind. The lexicon consists of words and bound morphemes, which are words that can't stand alone, like affixes, for example. In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions and other collocations are also considered to be part of the lexicon. Dictionaries represent attempts at listing, in alphabetical order, the lexicon of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included. Lexicography, closely linked with the domain of semantics, is the science of mapping the words into an encyclopedia or a dictionary. The creation and addition of new words (into the lexicon) are called neologisms.
It is often believed that a speaker's capacity for language lies in the quantity of words stored in the lexicon. However, this is often considered a myth by linguists. The capacity for the use of language primarily lies in the domain of grammar, and is linked with competence, and not with the growth of vocabulary. Even a considerably small-sized lexicon is capable of producing in a speaker infinite number of sentences.

Discourse[edit]

A discourse is a way of speaking that emerges within a certain social setting and is based on a certain subject matter. A particular discourse becomes a language variety when it is used in this way for a particular purpose, and is referred to as a register.[25] There may be certain lexical additions (new words) that are brought into play because of the expertise of the community of people within a certain domain of specialisation. Registers and discourses therefore differentiate themselves through the use of vocabulary, and at times through the use of style too. People in the medical fraternity, for example, may use some medical terminology in their communication that is specialised to the field of medicine. This is often referred to as being part of the "medical discourse", and so on.

Dialect[edit]

A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic of a particular group among the language speakers.[26] The group of people who are the speakers of a dialect are usually bound to each other by social identity. This is what differentiates a dialect from a register or a discourse, where in the latter case, cultural identity does not always play a role. Dialects are speech varieties that have their own grammatical and phonological rules, linguistic features, and stylistic aspects, but have not been given an official status as a language. Dialects often move on to gain the status of a language due to political and social reasons. Differentiation amongst dialects (and subsequently, languages too) is based upon the use of grammatical rules, syntactic rules, and stylistic features, though not always on lexical use or vocabulary. The popular saying that a "language is a dialect with an army and navy" is attributed as a definition formulated by Max Weinreich.
Universal grammar takes into account general formal structures and features that are common to all dialects and languages, and the template of which pre-exists in the mind of an infant child. This idea is based on the theory of generative grammar and the formal school of linguistics, whose proponents include Noam Chomsky and those who follow his theory and work.
"We may as individuals be rather fond of our own dialect. This should not make us think, though, that it is actually any better than any other dialect. Dialects are not good or bad, nice or nasty, right or wrong – they are just different from one another, and it is the mark of a civilised society that it tolerates different dialects just as it tolerates different races, religions and sexes." [27]

Structures[edit]

Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form. Any particular pairing of meaning and form is a Saussurean sign. For instance, the meaning "cat" is represented worldwide with a wide variety of different sound patterns (in oral languages), movements of the hands and face (in sign languages), and written symbols (in written languages).
Linguists focusing on structure attempt to understand the rules regarding language use that native speakers know (not always consciously). All linguistic structures can be broken down into component parts that are combined according to (sub)conscious rules, over multiple levels of analysis. For instance, consider the structure of the word "tenth" on two different levels of analysis. On the level of internal word structure (known as morphology), the word "tenth" is made up of one linguistic form indicating a number and another form indicating ordinality. The rule governing the combination of these forms ensures that the ordinality marker "th" follows the number "ten." On the level of sound structure (known as phonology), structural analysis shows that the "n" sound in "tenth" is made differently from the "n" sound in "ten" spoken alone. Although most speakers of English are consciously aware of the rules governing internal structure of the word pieces of "tenth", they are less often aware of the rule governing its sound structure. Linguists focused on structure find and analyze rules such as these, which govern how native speakers use language.
Linguistics has many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of linguistic structure. The theory that elucidates on these, as propounded by Noam Chomsky, is known as generative theory or universal grammar. These sub-fields range from those focused primarily on form to those focused primarily on meaning. They also run the gamut of level of analysis of language, from individual sounds, to words, to phrases, up to cultural discourse.
Sub-fields that focus on a structure-focused study of language:
  • Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech sound production and perception
  • Phonology, the study of sounds as abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning (phonemes)
  • Morphology, the study of morphemes, or the internal structures of words and how they can be modified
  • Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences
  • Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
  • Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning
  • Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)
  • Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place a discourse in context
  • Semiotics, the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication.

Relativity[edit]

As constructed popularly through the "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis", relativists believe that the structure of a particular language is capable of influencing the cognitive patterns through which a person shapes his or her world view.[28] Universalists believe that there are commonalities between human perception as there is in the human capacity for language, while relativists believe that this varies from language to language and person to person. While the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is an elaboration of this idea expressed through the writings of American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, it was Sapir's student Harry Hoijer who termed it thus. The 20th century German linguist Leo Weisgerber also wrote extensively about the theory of relativity. Relativists argue for the case of differentiation at the level of cognition and in semantic domains. The emergence of cognitive linguistics in the 1980s also revived an interest in linguistic relativity. Thinkers like George Lakoff have argued that language reflects different cultural metaphors, while the French philosopher of language Jacques Derrida's writings have been seen to be closely associated with the relativist movement in linguistics, especially through deconstruction[29] and was even heavily criticised in the media at the time of his death for his theory of relativism.[30]

Style[edit]

Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts for aspects of their linguistic and tonal style. Stylistic analysis entails the analysis of description of particular dialects and registers used by speech communities. Stylistic features include rhetoric,[31] diction, stress, satire, irony, dialogue, and other forms of phonetic variations. Stylistic analysis can also include the study of language in canonical works of literature, popular fiction, news, advertisements, and other forms of communication in popular culture as well. It is usually seen as a variation in communication that changes from speaker to speaker and community to community.

Approach[edit]

One major debate in linguistics concerns how language should be defined and understood. Some linguists use the term "language" primarily to refer to a hypothesised, innate module in the human brain that allows people to undertake linguistic behavior, which is part of the formalist approach. This "universal grammar" is considered to guide children when they learn languages and to constrain what sentences are considered grammatical in any language. Proponents of this view, which is predominant in those schools of linguistics that are based on the generative theory of Noam Chomsky, do not necessarily consider that language evolved for communication in particular. They consider instead that it has more to do with the process of structuring human thought (see also formal grammar).
Another group of linguists, by contrast, use the term "language" to refer to a communication system that developed to support cooperative activity and extend cooperative networks. Such functional theories of grammar view language as a tool that emerged and is adapted to the communicative needs of its users, and the role of cultural evolutionary processes are often emphasised over that of biological evolution.[32]

Methodology[edit]

Linguistics is primarily descriptive. Linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature or usage is "good" or "bad". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a zoologist studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is more evolved or less evolved than another.
Prescription, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "acrolect". This may have the aim of establishing a linguistic standard, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see Linguistic imperialism). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among censors, who attempt to eradicate words and structures that they consider to be destructive to society. Prescription, however, is practiced in the teaching of language, where certain fundamental grammatical rules and lexical terms need to be introduced to a second-language speaker who is attempting to acquire the language.

Analysis[edit]

Before the 20th century, linguists analysed language on a diachronic plane, which was historical in focus. This meant that they would compare linguistic features and try to analyse language from the point of view of how it had changed between then and later. However, with Sausserean linguistics in the 20th century, the focus shifted to a more synchronic approach, where the study was more geared towards analysis and comparison between different language variations, which existed at the same given point of time.
At another level, the syntagmatic plane of linguistic analysis entails the comparison between the way words are sequenced, within the syntax of a sentence. For example, the article "the" is followed by a noun, because of the syntagmatic relation between the words. The paradigmatic plane on the other hand, focuses on an analysis that is based on the paradigms or concepts that are embedded in a given text. In this case, words of the same type or class may be replaced in the text with each other to achieve the same conceptual understanding.

Anthropology[edit]

The objective of describing languages is to often uncover cultural knowledge about communities. The use of anthropological methods of investigation on linguistic sources leads to the discovery of certain cultural traits among a speech community through its linguistic features. It is also widely used as a tool in language documentation, with an endeavor to curate endangered languages. However, now, linguistic inquiry uses the anthropological method to understand cognitive, historical, sociolinguistic and historical processes that languages undergo as they change and evolve, as well as general anthropological inquiry uses the linguistic method to excavate into culture. In all aspects, anthropological inquiry usually uncovers the different variations and relativities that underlie the usage of language.

Sources[edit]

Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken data is more fundamental than written data. This is because:
  • Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and hearing it, while there have been many cultures and speech communities that lack written communication;
  • Speech evolved before human beings invented writing;
  • People learnt to speak and process spoken language more easily and earlier than they did with writing.
Nonetheless, linguists agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically transcribed and written. In addition, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of computer-mediated communication as a viable site for linguistic inquiry.
The study of writing systems themselves is, in any case, considered a branch of linguistics.

History of linguistic thought[edit]

Main article: History of linguistics

Early grammarians[edit]

Main articles: Philology and History of English grammars

Ancient Tamil inscription at Thanjavur
The formal study of language began in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology. Pāṇini's systematic classification of the sounds of Sanskrit into consonants and vowels, and word classes, such as nouns and verbs, was the first known instance of its kind. In the Middle East Sibawayh (سیبویه) made a detailed description of Arabic in 760 AD in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (الكتاب في النحو, The Book on Grammar), the first known author to distinguish between sounds and phonemes (sounds as units of a linguistic system).
Western interest in the study of languages began as early as in the East,[33] but the grammarians of the classical languages did not use the same methods or reach the same conclusions as their contemporaries in the Indic world. Early interest in language in the West was a part of philosophy, not of grammatical description. The first insights into semantic theory were made by Plato in his Cratylus dialogue, where he argues that words denote concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. This work is the first to use the word etymology to describe the history of a word's meaning. Around 280 BC one of Alexander the Great's successors founded a university (see Musaeum) in Alexandria, where a school of philologists studied the ancient texts in and taught Greek to speakers of other languages. While this school was the first to use the word "grammar" in its modern sense, Plato had used the word in its original meaning as "téchnē grammatikḗ" (Τέχνη Γραμματική), the "art of writing," which is also the title of one of the most important works of the Alexandrine school by Dionysius Thrax.[34] Throughout the Middle Ages the study of language was subsumed under the topic of philology, the study of ancient languages and texts, practiced by such educators as Roger Ascham, Wolfgang Ratke and John Amos Comenius.[35]

Comparative philology[edit]

In the 18th century, the first use of the comparative method by William Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics.[36] Bloomfield attributes "the first great scientific linguistic work of the world" to Jacob Grimm, who wrote Deutsche Grammatik.[37] It was soon followed by other authors writing similar comparative studies on other language groups of Europe. The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo-European to language in general by Wilhelm von Humboldt, of whom Bloomfield asserts:[37]
"This study received its foundation at the hands of the Prussian statesman and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767—1835), especially in the first volume of his work on Kavi, the literary language of Java, entitled Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts (‘On the Variety of the Structure of Human Language and its Influence upon the Mental Development of the Human Race’)."

Structuralism[edit]

Main article: Structuralism (linguistics)
Early in the 20th century, Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units, defined through the oppositions between them. By introducing a distinction between diachronic to synchronic analyses of language, he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics. Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still foundational in many contemporary linguistic theories, such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm, and the langue- parole distinction, distinguishing language as an abstract system (langue) from language as a concrete manifestation of this system (parole).[38] Substantial additional contributions following Saussure's definition of a structural approach to language came from The Prague school, Leonard Bloomfield, Charles F. Hockett, Louis Hjelmslev, Émile Benveniste and Roman Jakobson.[39][40]

Generativism[edit]

Main article: Generative linguistics
During the last half of the 20th century, following the work of Noam Chomsky, linguistics was dominated by the generativist school. While formulated by Chomsky in part as a way to explain how human beings acquire language and the biological constraints on this acquisition, in practice it has largely been concerned with giving formal accounts of specific phenomena in natural languages. Generative theory is modularist and formalist in character. Chomsky built on earlier work of Zellig Harris to formulate the generative theory of language. According to this theory the most basic form of language is a set of syntactic rules universal for all humans and underlying the grammars of all human languages. This set of rules is called Universal Grammar, and for Chomsky describing it is the primary objective of the discipline of linguistics. For this reason the grammars of individual languages are of importance to linguistics only in so far as they allow us to discern the universal underlying rules from which the observable linguistic variability is generated.
In the classic formalisation of generative grammars first proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s,[41][42] a grammar G consists of the following components:
  • A finite set N of nonterminal symbols, none of which appear in strings formed from G.
  • A finite set \Sigma of terminal symbols that is disjoint from N.
  • A finite set P of production rules, that map from one string of symbols to another.
A formal description of language attempts to replicate a speaker's knowledge of the rules of their language, and the aim is to produce a set of rules that is minimally sufficient to successfully model valid linguistic forms.

Functionalism[edit]

Main article: Functional theories of grammar
Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analysed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out. Functional theories of grammar differ from formal theories of grammar, in that the latter seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations, whereas the former defines the functions performed by language and then relates these functions to the linguistic elements that carry them out. This means that functional theories of grammar tend to pay attention to the way language is actually used, and not just to the formal relations between linguistic elements.[43]
Functional theories describe language in term of the functions existing at all levels of language.
  • Phonological function: the function of the phoneme is to distinguish between different lexical material.
  • Semantic function: (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.), describing the role of participants in states of affairs or actions expressed.
  • Syntactic functions: (e.g. subject and Object), defining different perspectives in the presentation of a linguistic expression
  • Pragmatic functions: (Theme and Rheme, Topic and Focus, Predicate), defining the informational status of constituents, determined by the pragmatic context of the verbal interaction. Functional descriptions of grammar strive to explain how linguistic functions are performed in communication through the use of linguistic forms.

Cognitivism[edit]

Main article: Cognitive linguistics
In the 1950s, a new school of thought known as cognitivism emerged through the field of psychology. Cognitivists lay emphasis on knowledge and information, as opposed to behaviorism, for instance. Cognitivism emerged in linguistics as a reaction to generativist theory in the 1970s and 1980s. Led by theorists like Ronald Langacker and George Lakoff, cognitive linguists propose that language is an emergent property of basic, general-purpose cognitive processes. In contrast to the generativist school of linguistics, cognitive linguistics is non-modularist and functionalist in character. Important developments in cognitive linguistics include cognitive grammar, frame semantics, and conceptual metaphor, all of which are based on the idea that form–function correspondences based on representations derived from embodied experience constitute the basic units of language.
Cognitive linguistics interprets language in terms of concepts (sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue) that underlie its form. It is thus closely associated with semantics but is distinct from psycholinguistics, which draws upon empirical findings from cognitive psychology in order to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production and understanding of speech and writing. Unlike generative theory, cognitive linguistics denies that there is an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; it understands grammar in terms of conceptualisation; and claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use.[44] Because of its conviction that knowledge of language is learned through use, cognitive linguistics is sometimes considered to be a functional approach, but it differs from other functional approaches in that it is primarily concerned with how the mind creates meaning through language, and not with the use of language as a tool of communication.

Areas of research[edit]

Historical linguistics[edit]

Historical linguists study the history of specific languages as well as general characteristics of language change. The study of language change is also referred to as "diachronic linguistics" (the study of how one particular language has changed over time), which can be distinguished from "synchronic linguistics" (the comparative study of more than one language at a given moment in time without regard to previous stages). Historical linguistics was among the first sub-disciplines to emerge in linguistics, and was the most widely practiced form of linguistics in the late 19th century. However, there was a shift to the synchronic approach in the early twentieth century with Saussure, and became more predominant in western linguistics with the work of Noam Chomsky.

Sociolinguistics[edit]

Sociolinguistics is the study of how language is shaped by social factors. This sub-discipline focuses on the synchronic approach of linguistics, and looks at how a language in general, or a set of languages, display variation and varieties at a given point in time. The study of language variation and the different varieties of language through dialects, registers, and ideolects can be tackled through a study of style, as well as through analysis of discourse. Sociolinguists research on both style and discourse in language, and also study the theoretical factors that are at play between language and society.

Developmental linguistics[edit]

Developmental linguistics is the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood. Some of the questions that developmental linguistics looks at is how do children acquire language? How does an adult acquire a second language? What is the process of language acquisition?

Neurolinguistics[edit]

Neurolinguistics is the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, brain imaging, electrophysiology, and computer modeling.

Applied linguistics[edit]

Main article: Applied linguistics
Linguists are largely concerned with finding and describing the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all languages. Applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. Linguistic research is commonly applied to areas such as language education, lexicography, translation, language planning, which involves with governmental level policy implementation related to language use, and natural language processing. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer.,[45] Applied linguists actually focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, and not literally "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics. Moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g., conversation analysis) and anthropology. (Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.)
Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. Speech synthesis and speech recognition use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of computational linguistics in machine translation, computer-assisted translation, and natural language processing are areas of applied linguistics that have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modeling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints.
Linguistic analysis is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed nationality of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim.[46] This often takes the form of an interview by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted either in the asylum seeker's native language through an interpreter or in an international lingua franca like English.[46] Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved.[46] Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done either by private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker.[46]

Inter-disciplinary fields[edit]

Within the broad discipline of linguistics, various emerging sub-disciplines focus on a more detailed description and analysis of language, and are often organized on the basis of the school of thought and theoretical approach that they pre-suppose, or the external factors that influence them.

Semiotics[edit]

Semiotics is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs, and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems, including the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. Semioticians often do not restrict themselves to linguistic communication when studying the use of signs but extend the meaning of "sign" to cover all kinds of cultural symbols. Nonetheless, semiotic disciplines closely related to linguistics are literary studies, discourse analysis, text linguistics, and philosophy of language. Semiotics, within the linguistics paradigm, is the study of the relationship between language and culture. Historically, Edward Sapir and Ferdinand De Saussure's structuralist theories influenced the study of signs extensively until the late part of the 20th century, but later, post-modern and post-structural thought, through language philosophers including Jacques Derrida, Mikhail Bakhtin, Michel Foucault, and others, have also been a considerable influence on the discipline in the late part of the 20th century and early 21st century.[47] These theories emphasise the role of language variation, and the idea of subjective usage, depending on external elements like social and cultural factors, rather than merely on the interplay of formal elements.

Language documentation[edit]

Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics, linguists have been concerned with describing and analysing previously undocumented languages. Starting with Franz Boas in the early 1900s, this became the main focus of American linguistics until the rise of formal structural linguistics in the mid-20th century. This focus on language documentation was partly motivated by a concern to document the rapidly disappearing languages of indigenous peoples. The ethnographic dimension of the Boasian approach to language description played a role in the development of disciplines such as sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology, which investigate the relations between language, culture, and society.
The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has also gained prominence outside North America, with the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages becoming a primary focus in many university programs in linguistics. Language description is a work-intensive endeavour, usually requiring years of field work in the language concerned, so as to equip the linguist to write a sufficiently accurate reference grammar. Further, the task of documentation requires the linguist to collect a substantial corpus in the language in question, consisting of texts and recordings, both sound and video, which can be stored in an accessible format within open repositories, and used for further research.[48]

Translation[edit]

The sub-field of translation includes the translation of written and spoken texts across mediums, from digital to print and spoken. To translate literally means to transmute the meaning from one language into another. Translators are often employed by organisations, such as travel agencies as well as governmental embassies to facilitate communication between two speakers who do not know each other's language. Translators are also employed to work within computational linguistics setups like Google Translate for example, which is an automated, programmed facility to translate words and phrases between any two or more given languages. Translation is also conducted by publishing houses, who convert works of writing from one language to another in order to reach varied audiences. Academic Translators, specialize and semi specialize on various other disciplines such as ; Technology, Science, Law, Economics etc.

Biolinguistics[edit]

Biolinguistics is the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals, compared to human language. Researchers in the field of biolinguistics have also over the years questioned the possibility and extent of language in animals.

Clinical linguistics[edit]

Clinical linguistics is the application of linguistic theory to the fields of Speech-Language Pathology. Speech language pathologists work on corrective measures to cure communication disorders and swallowing disorders.

Computational linguistics[edit]

Computational linguistics is the study of linguistic issues in a way that is 'computationally responsible', i.e., taking careful note of computational consideration of algorithmic specification and computational complexity, so that the linguistic theories devised can be shown to exhibit certain desirable computational properties and their implementations. Computational linguists also work on computer language and software development.

Ecolinguistics[edit]

Ecolinguistics is connected with a paradigm that views language to have an ecological context, and not just a historical, social or cultural context. Michael Halliday's 1990 paper New Ways of Meaning: The Challenge to Applied Linguistics is often credited as a seminal work which provided the stimulus for linguists to consider the ecological context and consequences of language. Among other things, the challenge that Halliday put forward was to make linguistics relevant to the issues and concerns of the 21st century, particularly the widespread destruction of ecosystems. Since Halliday's initial comments, the field of ecolinguistics has developed considerably, primarily in the direction of analysing the ecological impact of specific discourses rather than languages in general. Linguistic ecology, on the other hand, looks at how languages interact with each other and the places they are spoken in, and frequently argues for the preservation of endangered languages as an analogy of the preservation of biological species. Many have argued that separation of the metaphorical 'linguistic ecology' from ecolinguistics would be reductionist (Steffensen 2007), because high linguistic diversity is associated with high biological diversity (see Bastardas-Boada 2002). Many linguists work as activists in connection to ecolinguistics and linguistic ecology, as they actively work at documenting not only endangered languages but also tribal languages, and work with environmentalists to use the linguistic corpora collected to gain knowledge of a community and its land, and solve environmental problems.

Evolutionary linguistics[edit]

Evolutionary linguistics is the interdisciplinary study of the emergence of the language faculty through human evolution, and also the application of evolutionary theory to the study of cultural evolution among different languages. It is also a study of the dispersal of various languages across the globe, through movements among ancient communities.[49]

Forensic linguistics[edit]

Forensic linguistics is the application of linguistic analysis to forensics. Forensic analysis investigates on the style, language, lexical use, and other linguistic and grammatical features used in the legal context to provide evidence in courts of law. Forensic linguists have also contributed expertise in criminal cases.

See also[edit]

Main articles: Outline of linguistics and Index of linguistics articles
Other Terms and Concepts

References[edit]

  1. Jump up ^ Crystal, David (1990). Linguistics. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140135312. 
  2. Jump up ^ Halliday, Michael A.K.; Jonathan Webster (2006). On Language and Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. vii. ISBN 0-8264-8824-2. 
  3. Jump up ^ Martinet, André (1960). Elements of General Linguistics. Tr. Elisabeth Palmer (Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i.). London: Faber. p. 15. 
  4. Jump up ^ S.C. Vasu (Tr.) (1996). The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (2 Vols.). Vedic Books. ISBN 9788120804098. 
  5. Jump up ^ Jakobson, Roman (1937). Six Lectures on Sound and Meaning. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 0262600102. 
  6. Jump up ^ Chierchia, Gennaro and Sally McConnell-Ginet (2000). Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 9780262531641. 
  7. Jump up ^ Adrian Akmajian, Richard A. Demers, Ann K. Farmer, Robert M. Harnish (2010). Linguistics (6th ed.). The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-51370-6. Retrieved 25 July 2012. 
  8. Jump up ^ "Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. Encyclopedia of Linguistics.
  9. Jump up ^ Raymond Mougeon and Terry Nadasdi (1998). Sociolinguistic Discontinuity in Minority Language Communities pp. 40-55. Linguistic Society of America. 
  10. Jump up ^ de Saussure, F. (1986). Course in general linguistics (3rd ed.). (R. Harris, Trans.). Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company. (Original work published 1972). p. 9-10, 15.
  11. Jump up ^ Chomsky, Noam. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  12. Jump up ^ Jacques Derrida (Author) and Gayatri Chakravarti Spivak (Translator) (1967 and 1976). Of Grammatalogy. The John Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801858305. 
  13. Jump up ^ Noam Chomsky (2006). Language and Mind. Cambridge University Press. 
  14. Jump up ^ Lecture on Language and Mind. Noam Chomsky. 1968.
  15. Jump up ^ Journal of Language and Politics
  16. Jump up ^ Online Etymological Dictionary Definition of Philology
  17. Jump up ^ JSTOR preview: Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture by Stephen G. Nichols.
  18. Jump up ^ McMahon, A. M. S. (1994). Understanding Language Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-521-44665-1 
  19. Jump up ^ McMahon, A. M. S. (1994). Understanding Language Change. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-521-44665-1 
  20. Jump up ^ A. Morpurgo Davies Hist. Linguistics (1998) 4 I. 22.
  21. Jump up ^ Online Etymological Dictionary of Philology
  22. ^ Jump up to: a b Online Etymological Dictionary Definition of Linguist
  23. Jump up ^ "Linguist". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2000. ISBN 978-0-395-82517-4. 
  24. Jump up ^ Homepage of Professor David Crystal
  25. Jump up ^ Helen Leckie-Tarry, Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1995, p6. ISBN 1-85567-272-3
  26. Jump up ^ Oxford English dictionary.
  27. Jump up ^ Trudgill, P. (1994). Dialects. Ebooks Online Routledge. Florence, KY.
  28. Jump up ^ The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
  29. Jump up ^ Jacques Derrida (Author) and Alan Bass (translator) (1978). Writing and Difference. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226143293. 
  30. Jump up ^ "Relative Thinking." The Guardian. November 2004.
  31. Jump up ^ IA Richards (1965). The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press (New York). 
  32. Jump up ^ Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013). I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199660179. 
  33. Jump up ^ Bloomfield 1914, p. 307.
  34. Jump up ^ Seuren, Pieter A. M. (1998). Western linguistics: An historical introduction. Wiley-blackwell. pp. 2–24. ISBN 0-631-20891-7. 
  35. Jump up ^ Bloomfield 1914, p. 308.
  36. Jump up ^ Bloomfield 1914, p. 310.
  37. ^ Jump up to: a b Bloomfield 1914, p. 311.
  38. Jump up ^ Clarke, David S. (1990). Sources of semiotic: readings with commentary from antiquity to the present. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. pp. 143–144. 
  39. Jump up ^ Holquist 1981, pp. xvii-xviii.
  40. Jump up ^ de Saussure, Ferdinand. Course in General Linguistics. McGraw Hill, New York. ISBN 9780802214935. 
  41. Jump up ^ Chomsky, Noam (1956). "Three Models for the Description of Language". IRE Transactions on Information Theory 2 (2): 113 123. doi:10.1109/TIT.1956.1056813. 
  42. Jump up ^ Chomsky, Noam (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton. 
  43. Jump up ^ Nichols, Johanna (1984). "Functional Theories of Grammar". Annual Review of Anthropology 13: 97–117. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.13.100184.000525. "[Functional grammar] "analyzes grammatical structure, as do formal and structural grammar; but it also analyses the entire communicative situation: the purpose of the speech event, its participants, its discourse context. Functionalists maintain that the communicative situation motivates, constrains, explains, or otherwise determines grammatical structure, and that a structural or formal approach is not merely limited to an artificially restricted data base, but is inadequate as a structural account. Functional grammar, then, differs from formalae and structural grammar in that it purports not to model but to explain; and the explanation is grounded in the communicative situation."" 
  44. Jump up ^ Croft, William and D. Alan Cruse (2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. 
  45. Jump up ^ Barbara Seidlhofer (2003 isbn=0194374440). Controversies in Applied Linguistics (pp. 288). Oxford University Press. 
  46. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Eades, Diana (2005). "Applied Linguistics and Language Analysis in Asylum Seeker Cases". Applied Linguistics 26 (4): 503–526. doi:10.1093/applin/ami021. 
  47. Jump up ^ Paul Allen Miller (1998). The Classical Roots of Post-Structuralism: Lacan, Derrida and Foucault in the International Journal of the Classical Tradition (Volume 5, Number 2.). Springer. JSTOR 30222818 
  48. Jump up ^ Himmelman, Nikolaus Language documentation: What is it and what is it good for? in P. Gippert, Jost, Nikolaus P Himmelmann & Ulrike Mosel. (2006) Essentials of Language documentation. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin & New York.
  49. Jump up ^ Croft, William (October 2008). "Evolutionary Linguistics". Annual Review of Anthropology (Annual Reviews) 37: 219–234. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085156. 

Bibliography[edit]

  • Akmajian, Adrian; Demers, Richard; Farmer, Ann; Harnish, Robert (2010). Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-51370-6. 
  • Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct. William Morrow and Company. ISBN 9780140175295. 
  • Derrida, Jacques (1967). Of Grammatology. The John Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801858305. 

External links[edit]

Find more about Linguistics at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity


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Ely, the last great pure experience!

Discover Ely, Minnesota

Welcome to Ely, gateway to one of America’s last pure outdoor experiences. Discover wilderness lakes and forests unchanged by the hand of man. Canoe for days and escape modern civilization. Hike along wooded trails, where nature touches your soul, uplifts your spirit and quiets your mind. Explore miles of waterways and shorelines that are alive with nature’s bounty.

Find the perfect cabin, resort, or motel for your vacation in Minnesota, one that will linger in your mind for years to come. Ely Area lodging facilities have a strong commitment to preserving the legacy of the family-owned resort or motel. Many vacationers return to this area and their favorite spot year after year because of the friendly, courteous, and quality service they are accustom to in Ely.

Pitch a tent or set up that camper – we’ve got the perfect site waiting! Enjoy private, wooded sites in a variety of campgrounds that overlook scenic lakes. Ely area campgrounds offer a large range of amenities, from basic supplies to hook-ups and full-service bath facilities.

Let the restaurants, shops, world renowned attractions, and historic places you explore become the memories that bring a smile to your face, no matter where you are. Ely restaurants offer fine dining with Northwood’s favorites such as walleye, wild rice and one-of-a-kind sandwiches. Our unique shops and historic places won’t be found elsewhere. You’ll discover incredible paintings, photography, jewelry, glassware and fiber art by local artisans as well as locally made clothing and winter footwear.

This is the Boundary Water Canoe Area Wilderness, where more than one million acres of ancient forest and 1, 500 plus waterways remain untouched by civilization. This is the largest wilderness area east of the Rockies, and one of the most incredible places you’ll ever see. A favorite way to experience it, of course, is by canoe, the way Native Americans, trappers, fur traders and explorers have throughout the ages. The outfitters of the Ely Area cherish the lakes and forests and are professional guides, biologists and historians who can make your BWCAW experience one of your life’s most rewarding.

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Home AutoCAD 2011 Help Show in Contents Add to Favorites Home: User's Guide Start and Save Drawings Start and Save Drawings Overview of Starting a New Drawing Start and Save Drawings > Start a Drawing All drawings start from either a default drawing template file or a custom drawing template file that you create. Drawing template files store default settings, styles, and additional data.
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Neptune Beach City Attorney joins�GrayRobinson, P.A.

Esteemed attorney, Patrick Krechowski, joins Jacksonville office

Published Wednesday, July 23, 2014

GrayRobinson, P.A. welcomes Patrick W. Krechowski to the Jacksonville office from Fidelity National Title Group, Inc., where he served as senior in-house counsel. Krechowski brings more than sixteen years of experience in governmental, environmental, land use and title insurance law to the Firm.


“We are honored that Patrick has joined our Jacksonville office,” said GrayRobinson President and Managing Director Byrd F. “Biff” Marshall, Jr. “His unique and extensive experience as counsel for organizations ranging from Fortune 500 companies to municipal government, will be a great asset to our clients.”

As senior in-house counsel for Fidelity National Title Group, Inc., Patrick directly managed multi-jurisdictional title insurance claims litigation ranging in exposure from $10,000 to in excess of $10 million including coverage and indemnity disputes, quality assurance and insurance regulations. He performed frequent analysis of complex real estate and land use issues in resolution of title disputes.


Krechowski is currently City Attorney for Neptune Beach, Fla., giving him a keen understanding of the political landscape in the greater Jacksonville area. He has extensive experience in Environmental and Land Use Law from his previous work at both the St. Johns River Water Management District and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Krechowski works with clients on various land use issues, including environmental resource permitting, consumptive use permitting, water use and compliance matters, and coastal construction permitting and compliance.

In addition to his ongoing position as City Attorney for Neptune Beach, Krechowski also serves as an adjunct professor at the Florida Coastal School of Law, teaching courses related to Environmental Law and Ocean & Coastal Law, among others. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Criminal Justice from Florida State University and his Juris Doctor from Nova Southeastern University Shepard Broad Law Center.

About GrayRobinson, P.A.
Founded in 1970, GrayRobinson is a full-service law firm providing legal assistance across the state of Florida. With nearly 300 attorneys and 12 offices throughout Florida, GrayRobinson proudly provides legal assistance for Fortune 500 companies, emerging businesses, lending institutions, local and state governments, developers, entrepreneurs and individuals. GrayRobinson has continued to stay ahead of the curve with a firm commitment to creativity and innovation. For more information, visit www.gray-robinson.com.

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Angelow

Looking Back at Maya Angelou’s Life and Work, in The Times and on Twitter

By JOHN WILLIAMS
Maya Angelou in 1998.Chester Higgins Jr./The New York TimesMaya Angelou in 1998.

Maya Angelou, the poet and performer who died on Wednesday at 86, was a regular presence in The Times throughout her varied career.

In 1970, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt reviewed the first volume of Ms. Angelou’s autobiography, “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings,” alongside a memoir by the boxer Sugar Ray Robinson. Mr. Lehmann-Haupt concluded, “The fact that Miss Angelou is black is absolutely essential to her story, of course.” He added, “Her story could not have happened to anyone. Yet the fact that she is black is also entirely irrelevant. The beauty is not in the story, but in the telling.”

When the second volume, “Gather Together in My Name,” appeared in 1974, Annie Gottlieb began her review: “Maya Angelou writes like a song, and like the truth.” She went on to write that Ms. Angelou “accomplishes the rare feat of laying her own life open to a reader’s scrutiny without the reflex-covering gesture of melodrama or shame. And as she reveals herself so does she reveal the black community, with a quiet pride, a painful candor and a clean anger.”

More coverage of Ms. Angelou’s life and work in The Times:

“All God’s Children Need Traveling Shoes” (1986)

An Afternoon With Maya Angelou (1993)

“A Song Flung Up to Heaven” (2002)

A visit to Ms. Angelou’s Harlem home (2007)

A chat with Ms. Angelou (2013)

Ms. Angelou’s op-ed about Clarence Thomas (1991)

Ms. Angelou was a dancer and actor as well as a writer, and the way she performed her poems played a significant role in their impact. In the clip below, Ms. Angelou reads one of her most famous works, “And Still I Rise”:

Twitter users have been sharing photos of Ms. Angelou and thoughts about her death in great numbers. A selection below:

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Badlands National ParkFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, searchBadlands National ParkIUCN category II (national park)LocationJackson, Pennington, and Shannon counties, South Dakota, U.S.Nearest cityWall, South DakotaCoordinates43°45′00″N 102°30′00″W / 43.75000°N 102.50000°W / 43.75000; -102.50000Coordinates: 43°45′00″N 102°30′00″W / 43.75000°N 102.50000°W / 43.75000; -102.50000Area242,756 acres (98,240 ha)[1]EstablishedJanuary 29, 1939 (1939-January-29) as a National MonumentNovember 10, 1978 as a National ParkVisitors870,741 (in 2011)[2]Governing bodyNational Park ServiceMount RushmoreBlack Hills and BadlandsBadlands National ParkSculptureMount RushmoreCrazy HorseGeologic FormationsBadlandsNeedlesDevils TowerBear ButteSpearfish CanyonMountainsHarney PeakCavesWind CaveJewel CaveForestsCusterBlack HillsBlack ElkPrairie and GrasslandWind CaveBuffalo GapLakesSylvanPactolavteBadlands National Park is a national park in southwestern South Dakota that protects 242,756 acres (98,240 ha)[1] of sharply eroded buttes, pinnacles, and spires blended with the largest undisturbed mixed grass prairie in the United States. The park is managed by the National Park Service.The Badlands Wilderness protects 64,144 acres (25,958 ha) of the park as a designated wilderness area[3] and is the site of the reintroduction of the black-footed ferret, the most endangered land mammal in North America.[4]The Stronghold Unit is co-managed with the Oglala Lakota tribe and includes sites of 1890s Ghost Dances,[5] a former United States Air Force bomb and gunnery range,[6] and Red Shirt Table, the park's highest point at 3,340 feet (1,020 m).[7] Authorized as Badlands National Monument on March 4, 1929, it was not established until January 25, 1939. It was redesignated a national park on November 10, 1978.[8]Under the Mission 66 plan, the Ben Reifel Visitor Center was constructed for the monument in 1957–58. The park also administers the nearby Minuteman Missile National Historic Site.Contents [hide] 1 Prehistory1.1 Genera found in the area2 Human history2.1 Native Americans2.2 Fossil hunters2.3 Homesteaders2.4 Pine Ridge Indian Reservation3 Visiting the Park4 References5 External linksPrehistory[edit]Genera found in the area[edit]Restoration of genera present in the formations, by Jay MatternesAlligator (Crocodilian)Archaeotherium (Entelodont)Dinictis (Nimravid)Eporeodon (Oreodont)Eusmilus (Nimravid)Hoplophoneus (Nimravid)Hyaenodon (Creodont)Hyracodon (Running Rhino)Ischyromys (Ground Squirrel-like Rodent)Leptomeryx (Tragulid)Merycoidodon (Oreodont)Metamynodon (Aquatic Rhino)Miniochoerus (Oreodont)Poebrotherium (Camel)Subhyracodon (Rhinoceros)See also: White River Fauna for a list of fossil animals discovered in the formations that make up Badlands National Park and surrounding areas.Human history[edit]Native Americans[edit]False-color satellite image of the park (more information)For 11,000 years, Native Americans have used this area for their hunting grounds. Long before the Lakota were the little-studied paleo-Indians, followed by the Arikara people. Their descendants live today in North Dakota as a part of the Three Affiliated Tribes. Archaeological records combined with oral traditions indicate that these people camped in secluded valleys where fresh water and game were available year round. Eroding out of the stream banks today are the rocks and charcoal of their campfires, as well as the arrowheads and tools they used to butcher bison, rabbits, and other game. From the top of the Badlands Wall, they could scan the area for enemies and wandering herds. If hunting was good, they might hang on into winter, before retracing their way to their villages along the Missouri River. By one hundred and fifty years ago, the Great Sioux Nation consisting of seven bands including the Oglala Lakota, had displaced the other tribes from the northern prairie.The next great change came toward the end of the 19th century as homesteaders moved into South Dakota. The U.S. government stripped Native Americans of much of their territory and forced them to live on reservations. In the fall and early winter of 1890, thousands of Native American followers, including many Oglala Sioux, became followers of the Indian prophet Wovoka. His vision called for the native people to dance the Ghost Dance and wear Ghost Shirts, which would be impervious to bullets. Wovoka had predicted that the white man would vanish and their hunting grounds would be restored. One of the last known Ghost Dances was conducted on Stronghold Table in the South Unit of Badlands National Park. As winter closed in, the ghost dancers returned to Pine Ridge Agency. The climax of the struggle came in late December, 1890. Headed south from the Cheyenne River, a band of Minneconjou Sioux crossed a pass in the Badlands Wall. Pursued by units of the U.S. Army, they were seeking refuge in the Pine Ridge Reservation. The band, led by Chief Big Foot, was finally overtaken by the soldiers near Wounded Knee Creek in the Reservation and ordered to camp there overnight. The troops attempted to disarm Big Foot's band the next morning. Gunfire erupted. Before it was over, nearly three hundred Indians and thirty soldiers lay dead. The Wounded Knee Massacre was the last major clash between Plains Indians and the U.S. military until the advent of the American Indian Movement in the 1970s, most notably in the 1973 standoff at Wounded Knee, South Dakota.Wounded Knee is not within the boundaries of Badlands National Park. It is located approximately 45 miles (72 km) south of the park on Pine Ridge Reservation. The U.S. government and the Oglala Lakota Nation have agreed that this is a story to be told by the Oglala of Pine Ridge and Minneconjou of Standing Rock Reservation. The interpretation of the site and its tragic events are held as the primary responsibility of these survivors.Fossil hunters[edit]Aerial view, 3D computer generated imageThe history of the White River Badlands as a significant paleontological resource goes back to the traditional Native American knowledge of the area. The Lakota found large fossilized bones, fossilized seashells and turtle shells. They correctly assumed that the area had once been under water, and that the bones belonged to creatures which no longer existed.[citation needed] Paleontological interest in this area began in the 1840s. Trappers and traders regularly traveled the 300 miles (480 km) from Fort Pierre to Fort Laramie along a path which skirted the edge of what is now Badlands National Park. Fossils were occasionally collected, and in 1843 a fossilized jaw fragment collected by Alexander Culbertson of the American Fur Company found its way to a physician in St. Louis by the name of Dr. Hiram A. Prout.In 1846, Prout published a paper about the jaw in the American Journal of Science in which he stated that it had come from a creature he called a Paleotherium. Shortly after the publication, the White River Badlands became popular fossil hunting grounds and, within a couple of decades, numerous new fossil species had been discovered in the White River Badlands. In 1849, Dr. Joseph Leidy published a paper on an Oligocene camel and renamed Prout's Paleotherium, Titanotherium prouti. By 1854 when he published a series of papers about North American fossils, 84 distinct species had been discovered in North America – 77 of which were found in the White River Badlands. In 1870 a Yale professor, O. C. Marsh, visited the region and developed more refined methods of extracting and reassembling fossils into nearly complete skeletons. From 1899 to today, the South Dakota School of Mines has sent people almost every year and remains one of the most active research institutions working in the White River Badlands. Throughout the late 19th century and continuing today, scientists and institutions from all over the world have benefited from the fossil resources of the White River Badlands. The White River Badlands have developed an international reputation as a fossil-rich area. They contain the richest deposits of Oligocene mammals known, providing a brief glimpse of life in this area 33 million years ago.Homesteaders[edit]Aspects of American homesteading began before the end of the American Civil War; however, it didn't really impact the Badlands until the 20th century. Then, many hopeful farmers traveled to South Dakota from Europe or the eastern United States to try to eke out a living in the area. The standard size for a homestead was 160 acres (65 ha). Being in a semi-arid, wind-swept environment, this proved far too small of a holding to support a family. In 1916, in the western Dakotas, the size of a homestead was increased to 640 acres (260 ha). Cattle grazed the land, and crops such as winter wheat and hay were cut annually. However, the Great Dust Bowl events of the 1930s, combined with waves of grasshoppers, proved too much for most of the settlers of the Badlands. Houses, which had been built out of sod blocks and heated by buffalo chips, were abandoned. Those who remained today ranch and raise wheat.Pine Ridge Indian Reservation[edit]As part of the war effort, the U.S. Army Air Force (USAAF) took possession of 341,726 acres (138,292 ha) of land on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, home of the Oglala Sioux people, for a gunnery range. Included in this range was 337 acres (136 ha) from the Badlands National Monument. This land was used extensively from 1942 through 1945 as an air-to-air and air-to-ground gunnery range including both precision and demolition bombing exercises. After the war, portions of the bombing range were used as an artillery range by the South Dakota National Guard. In 1968, most of the range was declared excess property by the USAF though 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) are retained by the USAF but no longer used, the majority of the land was turned over to the National Park Service.Firing took place within most of the present day Stronghold District. Land was bought or leased from individual landowners and the Tribe in order to clear the area of human occupation. Old car bodies and 55 gallon drums painted bright yellow were used as targets. Bulls-eyes 250 feet (76 m) across were plowed into the ground and used as targets by bombardiers. Small automatic aircraft called "target drones" and 60-by-8-foot (18 by 2 m) screens dragged behind planes served as mobile targets. Today, the ground is littered with discarded bullet cases and unexploded ordnance.125 families were forcibly relocated from their farms and ranches in the 1940s including Dewey Beard, a survivor of the Wounded Knee Massacre. Those that remained nearby recall times when they had to dive under tractors while out cutting hay to avoid bombs dropped by planes miles outside of the boundary. In the town of Interior, both a church and the building housing the current post office were struck by six inch (152 mm) shells through the roof. Pilots operating out of Ellsworth Air Force Base near Rapid City found it a real challenge to determine the exact boundaries of the range. Fortunately, there were no civilian casualties. However, at least a dozen flight crew personnel lost their lives in plane crashes.The Stronghold District of Badlands National Park offers more than scenic badlands with spectacular views. Co-managed by the National Park Service and the Oglala Lakota Tribe, this 133,300-acre (53,900 ha) area is steeped in history. Deep draws, high tables and rolling prairie hold the stories of the earliest plains hunters, the paleo-Indians, as well as the present day Lakota Nation.Visiting the Park[edit]Tenting in the Cedar Pass CampgroundBadlands National Park has two campgrounds for overnight visits.[9]References[edit]^ Jump up to: a b "Listing of acreage as of December 31, 2011". Land Resource Division, National Park Service. Retrieved March 5, 2012. Jump up ^ "NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report". National Park Service. Retrieved March 5, 2012. Jump up ^ "Badlands Wilderness". Wilderness.net. Retrieved March 5, 2012. Jump up ^ "2008 Badlands Visitor Guide". National Park Service. p. 2. Retrieved March 12, 2011. Jump up ^ "Badlands National Park". Rand McNally. Retrieved March 12, 2011. "The cultural centerpiece of this section is the Stronghold Table, where the Oglala Sioux danced the Ghost Dance for the last time in 1890." [dead link]Jump up ^ "Pine Ridge Gunnery Range/Badlands Bombing Range". South Dakota; Department of Environment & Natural Resources. Archived from the original on March 9, 2011. Retrieved March 12, 2011. Jump up ^ "U.S. National Park High Points". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved March 17, 2008. Jump up ^ "The National Parks: Index 2009–2011". National Park Service. Retrieved March 5, 2012. Jump up ^ http://www.nps.gov/badl/planyourvisit/camping.htmExternal links[edit]Find more about Badlands National Park at Wikipedia's sister projectsMedia from CommonsTravel guide from WikivoyageBadlands National Park - official National Park Service websiteBadlands Visitor Information websiteBadlands Bombing Range - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers[show]vteNational parks of the United StatesAcadiaAmerican SamoaArchesBadlandsBig BendBiscayneBlack Canyon of the GunnisonBryce CanyonCanyonlandsCapitol ReefCarlsbad CavernsChannel IslandsCongareeCrater LakeCuyahoga ValleyDeath ValleyDenaliDry TortugasEvergladesGates of the ArcticGlacierGlacier BayGrand CanyonGrand TetonGreat BasinGreat Sand DunesGreat Smoky MountainsGuadalupe MountainsHaleakalāHawaiʻi VolcanoesHot SpringsIsle RoyaleJoshua TreeKatmaiKenai FjordsKings CanyonKobuk ValleyLake ClarkLassen VolcanicMammoth CaveMesa VerdeMount RainierNorth CascadesOlympicPetrified ForestPinnaclesRedwoodRocky MountainSaguaroSequoiaShenandoahTheodore RooseveltVirgin IslandsVoyageursWind CaveWrangell–St. EliasYellowstoneYosemiteZion List of national parks of the United States (by elevation)[show]vteProtected areas of South DakotaFederalNational ParksBadlandsWind CaveNational Historic Sitesand MemorialsMinuteman Missile NHSMount Rushmore NMemNational MonumentJewel CaveNational ForestsBlack HillsCusterNational GrasslandsBuffalo GapDakota PrairieFort PierreGrand RiverNational Historic TrailLewis and ClarkNational Recreational RiverMissouriNational Wildlife RefugesHuron WMDKarl E. MundtLacreekLake AndesMadison WMDSand LakeSand Lake WMDWaubayWaubay WMDNational Wilderness AreasBadlandsBlack ElkStateState ParksAdams Homestead and Nature PreserveBear ButteCusterFisher GroveFort SissetonGood EarthHartford BeachLake HermanLone PineNewton HillsOakwood LakesPalisadesRoy LakeSica HollowUnion GroveState Recreation AreasAngosturaBeaver CreekBig SiouxBig Stone IslandBurke LakeBuryanekChief White CraneCow CreekFarm IslandGeorge S. Mickelson TrailIndian CreekLaFramboise IslandLake AlvinLake CochraneLake HiddenwoodLake LouiseLake PoinsettLake ThompsonLake VermillionLewis and ClarkLittle MoreauLlewellyn JohnsMina LakeNorth PointNorth WheelerOahe DownstreamOkobojo PointPease CreekPelican LakePickerel LakePierson RanchPlatte CreekRandall CreekRichmond LakeSandy ShoreShadehillSnake CreekSpirit Mound Historic PrairieSpringfieldSwan CreekWalker's PointWest BendWest PollackWest Whitlock Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Badlands_National_Park&oldid=605704286" Categories: IUCN Category IIBadlandsBadlands National ParkArchaeological sites in South DakotaOligocene mammalsProtected areas established in 1939Protected areas of Jackson County, South DakotaProtected areas of Pennington County, South DakotaProtected areas of Shannon County, South Dakota1939 establishments in South DakotaHidden categories: All articles with dead external linksArticles with dead external links from March 2012Use mdy dates from June 2012Coordinates on WikidataAll articles with unsourced statementsArticles with unsourced statements from April 2014Navigation menuPersonal toolsCreate accountLog in NamespacesArticleTalkVariantsViewsReadEditView historyActionsSearchNavigationMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikimedia ShopInteractionHelpAbout WikipediaCommunity portalRecent changesContact pageWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationData itemCite this pageCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesالعربيةБългарскиCatalàDanskDeutschEspañolفارسیFrançaisHrvatskiItalianoLietuviųNederlands日本語Norsk bokmålPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRuna SimiРусскийShqipSuomiSvenskaTürkçe中文Edit links This page was last modified on 25 April 2014 at 04:43.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Literary MagazinesBrowse the literary magazines listed in NewPages to find short stories and longer fiction, poetry, creative nonfiction, essays, literary criticism, book reviews, author interviews, art and photography. The magazine editor's description for each sponsored literary magazine gives you an overview of editorial styles—what writers they have published and what they are looking for (with contact information, subscription rates, submission guidelines, and more).Sponsored Lit Mag ListingsA BC DE FG HI JK LMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ New & Featured Listingselsewhere elsewhere is an online bimonthly publication of flash fiction and prose poetry. [o][Read more about elsewhere]The Idaho ReviewAn annual review of literary fiction and poetry, highlighting an array of distinguished writers as well as new and exciting voices of emerging writers.[Read more about The Idaho Review]Southern Humanities ReviewFiction, poetry, personal and critical essays, and book reviews on the arts, literature, philosophy, religion, cultural studies, and history by new and established writers. Also publishes translations. [Read more about Southern Humanities Review]The Write Place At the Write TimeWe are about the synchronistic convergences of time, place, readers, and writers that create unforgettable moments where lives change course and dreams are born. [o][Read more about The Write Place At the Write Time]2River ViewSince 1996, an online site of poetry, art, and theory, quarterly publishing The 2River View and occasionally publishing individual authors in the 2River Chapbook Series, as well as podcasting 2River authors from the Muddy Bank blog. 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Poetry, fiction, critical essays, book reviews, arts chronicles.[Read more about The Hudson Review]Itop of pageThe Idaho ReviewAn annual review of literary fiction and poetry, highlighting an array of distinguished writers as well as new and exciting voices of emerging writers.[Read more about The Idaho Review]Indiana ReviewNow in its 36th year of publication, Indiana Review is a non-profit literary magazine dedicated to showcasing the talents of emerging and established writers.[Read more about Indiana Review]The Iowa ReviewDedicated to publishing the finest contemporary fiction, poetry, and creative nonfiction.[Read more about The Iowa Review]J - Ktop of pageJewish Fiction .net Jewish Fiction .net showcases the finest contemporary Jewish-themed fiction from around the world (either written in, or translated into, English). Stories and novel excerpts welcome. 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[Read more about Kenyon Review]Ltop of pageThe LabletterThe Labletter is an annual magazine of art and literature that has its roots in the Oregon Lab, the name given to a group of artists and their annual gathering[Read more about The Labletter]LalitambaLalitamba is an international journal of writings for liberation.[Read more about Lalitamba]The Ledge MagazineAn independent publication featuring cutting-edge contemporary poetry and fiction by both established and emerging poets and writers.[Read more about The Ledge Magazine]The Literary BohemianThe Literary Bohemian is the final online destination for first-class, travel-inspired writing that transports the reader, non-stop, to Elsewhere. [o][Read more about Literary Bohemian]Literary JuiceLiterary Juice is produced from 100% pure originality. We feature works of fiction and poetry that are clever, bold, and even weird! 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[Read more about The Louisville Review] Browse Next Page of Literary Magazine Guidetop of page MagazinesLiterary MagazinesAlternative MagazinesLit Mag Reviews Screen ReadingMagazine StandWriters ResourcesCalls for SubmissionsWriting ContestsCreative Writing ProgramsWriting ConferencesBlogs of Poets & WritersBooksPublishersBook ReviewsBook StandAuthor-Published BooksBooksellersIndependent BookstoresGuides & FeaturesPodcasts - Video/AudioReview SourcesAlternative NewsweekliesUncle Frank's DiaryIndie Record LabelsBlogs & News SitesInterviews/FeaturesYoung Authors GuideNewPages infoContact/FAQSearchDonate NEW! Buy single copies of great literary magazines.The NewPages Webstore.Our Big List of Literary Magazines is [ here ]Literary Links- guide to recommended literary sitesNEW list of undergraduate literary magazinesNEW list of blogs by poets & writers. If your blog isn't listed, give us a holler.The Magazine Stand showcases new issues of lit and alt mags received. 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Welcomen To Park Rapids

May 31, 2014

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101 South Main
Park Rapids, MN 56470
Phone: 218-732-3381
Office: 800-248-4032
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Located in Park Rapids, in the heart of the lakes country and home to the Headwaters of the Mississippi River. Coldwell Banker Clack And Dennis Real Estate is the oldest, most experienced real estate company in the area.

Mary Beth Anderson
Mary Beth Anderson
Realtor 		Rhonda Gartner
Rhonda Gartner
Realtor 		Marvel Haynes
Marvel Haynes
Realtor, ABR, CRS, GRI 		Mel Holtan
Mel Holtan
Realtor, Auctioneer, GRI 		Kelli Johnson
Kelli Johnson
Realtor, GRI
Elaine Kniefel
Elaine Kniefel
Realtor 		Robert Mack
Robert Mack
Realtor 		Dani Ondracek
Dani Ondracek
Realtor, GRI, ABR 		Thom Peterson
Thom Peterson
Realtor, CRS, GRI 		James Preiner
James Preiner
Realtor
Katelyn Warmbold
Katelyn Warmbold
Realtor 		Justin Clack
Justin Clack
Broker/Owner 		Diane Dennis
Diane Dennis
Broker/Owner

We have 2 full-time staff members who handle the clerical and computer operations of our company, as well as a team of 14 real estate professionals dedicated to professionalism, honesty and customer service.

We invite all prospective clients and customers to come and take a full tour of our high-tech facility and take a look at our photo gallery of available properties.

Coldwell Banker Clack & Dennis Real Estate is licensed in the State of Minnesota

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Blue Heron Beach Resort

A lakefront, condominium-style, resort featuring one- and two-bedroom family-friendly suites less than one mile from the entrance to Walt Disney World.

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Blue Heron Beach Resort

13428 Blue Heron Beach Drive

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Blue Heron Beach Resort

A lakefront, condominium-style, resort featuring one- and two-bedroom family-friendly suites less than one mile from the entrance to Walt Disney World.

Amenities

Oversized Rooms

Outdoor Pool

Free Transportation

Restaurant

Bar

24-Hour Front Desk

24-Hour Security

Air Conditioned

Boating

Brailled Elevators

Car Rental Desk

Concierge Desk

Copy Service

Doctor on Call

Elevators

Exercise Gym

Family Plan

Fax

Game Room

Heated Guest Rooms

Heated Pool

Ice Machine

Indoor Parking

International Direct Dial

Jacuzzi

Lanai

Miniature Golf

Multilingual

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On the Lake

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Parking

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Pool

Poolside Snackbar

Ramp Access to Buildings

Recreational Vehicle Parking

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what a novel idea

Home Overview Demo Screenshots Feedback Authors FAQ Shop Contact The complete novel writing software package What people are saying about novel writing with NewNovelist Other Products For the younger writer NewNovelist Version 3 (Windows 8, 7 or Vista) Newnovelist is a Windows program that helps people who want to write a novel... complete their novel. Version 3 Second Edition contains many new and exciting features but still provides the unique help that has enabled so many people get published in the last 12 years. It uses a new, stunningly powerful Microsoft technology which brings a whole new experience to the aspiring novel writer. Newnovelist 1 Launched 2001 Newnovelist 2 Launched 2006 Newnovelist 3 Second Edition Launched October 2012 If you are going to write a novel you have come to the right place. You need something which is tried and proven, you need the best - you need Newnovelist. The original and best for only $47.99 - £29.99! Buy Newnovelist 3 now with world class online support and a full 30 day money back warranty if you are not satisfied. Hot Links • Features • Why use novel writing software? • Why use NewNovelist? • Flash Demo • Screenshots The Problem Let’s face it – writing a book takes time. LOTS of it. Until now, aspiring writers and novelists faced - and let’s be honest – a gut-wrenching, slow and grueling writing process. We know what you’re going through. You probably have lots of notes in your head. You’ve gotten up at 3am just to jot down a great idea you had. Something strikes you for inspiration, and you’ve just got to write that chapter – NOW – before you forget. NewNovelist provides you with a huge of array of templates to help you get started and provides you with professional, creative writing advice - if you need it. But you’re supposed to use some ‘process’. That means you can’t start your novel now - you have to wait until you’ve got things in sequential order. 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Please click on an option below to get more information: Online Flash Demo Screenshots Home - Overview - Demo - Screenshots - Authors - FAQ - Shop - Contact - Articles - Book in a month - Self Publishing

cass county mi8nnesota and environs



CONTACT US:Phone: 218-947-7522 Email: cass.edc@co.cass.mn.us

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Cass County has 65 growing and active cities and townships for growing businesses. State Highway 371 connects Brainerd, Pine River, Backus, Hackensack to Walker and Bemidji. Cass Lake and Pillager have rail spurs for fast and easy accessibility.
Cass County Economic Development Corporation is proud of the role these cities and townships play in creating a great place to live, work and play. These communities offer a great workforce and room to grow. Cass County is truly "Minnesota Nice!"
Northern Communities include: Walker: Leading manufacturing businesses in this community are CavCom, Inc., Wilkening Fireplace, Inc. and Next Innovations, LTD. This city also includes two clinics, assisted living options, First National Bank of Walker, Bank Forward and as the county seat, is home to the Cass County Government Center. Map PDF
Cass Lake: This community is home to Cass Forest Products and many fine resorts and retail stores such as Teals Super Value and Cass Lake Building Supply. Map PDF
Remer: Remer Cut Stock Lumber is a leading manufacturer in Remer. This community is also home to Woodland Bank, Essentia Healthcare Clinic, Crosby Eye Care, many fine churches and Northland School District #118. Map PDF
Longville: The city of Longville is world renowned for its beautiful vacation options. It is home to Longville Lakes Marine, Cuyuna Lakes Clinic and two bank branches. Map PDF
Central Communities include: Hackensack: The community of Hackensack is home to Bear Pause Theatre, Essentia Healthcare Clinic, Mann Lake Supply, LTD., Hackensack Sr. Class and many fine churches. Ten Mile Lake and 126 other lakes are in a 10-mile radius of Hackensack. Map PDF
Backus: Scamp Trailers are manufactured and sold at the headquarters of Eveland’s, Inc. of Backus, MN. Other amenities of Backus include a senior center and the Backus Corner Store and Sport Shop on the corner of County Road #87 and State Highway #371. Map PDF
Pine River: Established manufacturing businesses already in Pine RIver are: Trussworthy Components, Inc., Universal Templates, Down to Earth Furniture and Hunt Utility Group (HUG), although there is room for more. The Paul Bunyan Trail, Pine River State Bank, Good Samaritan Home are other fine features of Pine River. Map PDF
Southern Communities include:Pillager: This community is home to Manion Truss, the Shante Coffee Shop, Riverside Assisted Living, two clinics and the Pillager K-12 School District #116. Map PDF
City of Lake Shore: The beautiful city of Lake Shore is well known for its premier housing and resorts along beautiful Gull Lake. Map PDF
City of East Gull Lake: This community located on the southern shores of attractive Gull Lake in southern Cass County. East Gull Lake is home to three nationally-known resorts – Madden’s on Gull Lake, Cragun’s Resort & Hotel on Gull Lake and Kavanaugh’s Sylvan Lake Resort. Map PDF



"The EDC knew just who to call and they did it!”

- Steven C. Olson, Chase on the Lake


SUCCESS STORIES
Trussworthy Components, Inc.Owner Craig Anderson invested $943,000 to construct a new facility for his business. The EDC coordinated the financing and the JOBZ designation plus a $167,000 grant for the industrial park infrastructure.



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Cass CountyEconmic Development CorporationPO Box 142218 Washburn Ave EastBackus MN 56435218-947-7522 cass.edc@co.cass.mn.us©2011 Cass County EDC